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{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":41641,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jeroboam II","title_en":"Jeroboam II","content_ro":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","summary_en":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41734,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Uzziah","title_en":"Uzziah","content_ro":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","summary_en":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69267,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jeroboam II","title_en":"Jeroboam II","content_ro":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","summary_en":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69360,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Uzziah","title_en":"Uzziah","content_ro":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","summary_en":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96893,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jeroboam II","title_en":"Jeroboam II","content_ro":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","summary_en":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96986,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Uzziah","title_en":"Uzziah","content_ro":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","summary_en":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124519,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jeroboam II","title_en":"Jeroboam II","content_ro":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jeroboam II<\/h3>\n<p>Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel’s newfound prosperity was that Assyria experienced a decline in power during this time, allowing the northern kingdom to expand. The prophet Jonah, however, predicted this prosperity as the fulfillment of God’s promise (14:25). Even though Jeroboam’s reign came after 150 years of apostasy in the northern kingdom, God still exhibited his faithful love by offering Israel his mercy (14:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>While the reign of Jeroboam II produced great wealth, it was not accompanied by justice. The rich landowners oppressed the less wealthy and forced small landowners to migrate from their farms to the cities. There was an increase in government corruption, economic depression, and political weakness, and Israel’s spiritual state continued to degenerate. God raised up prophets to challenge the leaders and people of Israel during this time. Amos and Hosea prophesied against Israel’s vast corruption. Amos was particularly scathing in his attacks on the rich for oppressing the poor. He mentions Jeroboam’s impending death and the punishment that was coming upon Israel (Amos 7:10-17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jeroboam II died, the northern kingdom rapidly declined. In the following years (753–722 <span>BC<\/span>), six kings ruled in rapid succession, and most of them were assassinated. In 722 <span>BC<\/span>, about 30 years after the end of Jeroboam II’s reign, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and deported its people, thus properly bringing judgment on the sins of Jeroboam II and other northern kings.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 13:13; 14:16, 23-29; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; 7:10-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","summary_en":"Jeroboam II Jeroboam II, son of Jehoash, reigned over Israel for 41 years (793–753 BC), longer than any other northern king. He followed the evil example of his (unrelated) namesake, Jeroboam I (2 Kgs 14:23-24). During his era the northern kingdom reached its greatest extent and experienced its greatest prosperity since Solomon (archaeological evidence from Jeroboam’s capital, Samaria, suggests the opulence of Israel’s royal house during his reign). On a human level, an explanation for Israel...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124612,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Uzziah","title_en":"Uzziah","content_ro":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Uzziah<\/h3>\n<p>Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). Both kings were successful and brought a long period of prosperity to Israel and Judah. Uzziah successfully fought the Philistines, and he built many fortifications in Jerusalem and throughout Judah. He “sought guidance from the <span>Lord<\/span>” (2 Chr 26:5), and as long as he did, the Lord blessed him in all his undertakings and he prospered.<\/p>\n<p>Several prophets were active during Uzziah’s reign. Amos and Hosea both prophesied during his life (Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1), though most of their oracles were directed toward the northern kingdom. And the prophet Isaiah received his call the year Uzziah died (Isa 1:1; 6:1).<\/p>\n<p>Uzziah became proud of his many successes and had a sad downfall (2 Chr 26:16). He took upon himself the prerogatives of a priest, entered the holy area of the Temple, and burned incense. The priests tried to stop him from this sin against the Lord, but he angrily rejected their warnings. Because of his disobedience, God struck Uzziah with leprosy and he had to live out the rest of his life in seclusion. Uzziah was buried with his forefathers, but at a distance because of his leprosy (26:23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23; Isa 1:1; 6:1; Hos 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech 14:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","summary_en":"Uzziah Uzziah, son of Amaziah and Jecoliah, reigned over Judah for 52 years (792–740 BC; see 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-2; 2 Chr 26:1-3). He reigned as co-regent with his father from the age of sixteen for approximately 25 years. Later, when his father was assassinated, Uzziah became the sole ruler. He served as a capable, energetic, and well-organized king who pleased the Lord through most of his reign. During most of Uzziah’s reign, Jeroboam II ruled the northern kingdom of Israel (793–753 BC). B...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1434,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amos (Person)","title_en":"Amos (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew prophet of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Nothing is known about Amos apart from the book that bears his name. He was a shepherd living in Tekoa, a village about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of Jerusalem, when God spoke to him in a vision (Am 1:1-2). The kingdom was then divided, with Uzziah king of Judah in the south and Jeroboam II king of Israel in the north. In Amos’s vision, the Lord was like a lion roaring out judgment on injustice and idolatry, especially among God’s own people. The short biographical section of his writings shows Amos preaching only at Bethel, in Israel, about 12 miles (19 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and just over the border. Bethel had been made the royal religious sanctuary of Israel by Jeroboam I to rival Jerusalem in Judah. Amos prophesied that Israel would be overrun and its king killed. The priest of Bethel, Amaziah, called Amos a traitor and told him to go back to Judah and do his prophesying there. Amos replied, “I’m not one of your professional prophets. I certainly never trained to be one. I’m just a shepherd, and I take care of fig trees.” But the Lord told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (Am 7:10-15, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amos was evidently a God-fearing man who deeply felt the mistreatment of the poor by the privileged classes. He did not want to be identified with an elite group of professional prophets, who may have lost their original fervor. His writings reflect the earthy background of a shepherd (3:12). But he spoke with authority the message given him by the Lord God of Hosts: “I want to see a mighty flood of justice, a river of righteous living that will never run dry” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>). The message of Amos was a call to repentance of personal and social sins and a return to the worship of the one true God and to the covenantal standards that made the Jewish people a nation. <em>See<\/em> Amos, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew prophet of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Nothing is known about Amos apart from the book that bears his name. He was a shepherd living in Tekoa, a village about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of Jerusalem, when God spoke to him in a vision (Am 1:1-2). The kingdom was then divided, with Uzziah king of Judah in the south and Jeroboam II king of Israel in the north. In Amos’s vision, the Lord was like a lion roaring out judgment on injustice and idolatry, especially among God’s own people. The short biographical section of his writings shows Amos preaching only at Bethel, in Israel, about 12 miles (19 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and just over the border. Bethel had been made the royal religious sanctuary of Israel by Jeroboam I to rival Jerusalem in Judah. Amos prophesied that Israel would be overrun and its king killed. The priest of Bethel, Amaziah, called Amos a traitor and told him to go back to Judah and do his prophesying there. Amos replied, “I’m not one of your professional prophets. I certainly never trained to be one. I’m just a shepherd, and I take care of fig trees.” But the Lord told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (Am 7:10-15, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amos was evidently a God-fearing man who deeply felt the mistreatment of the poor by the privileged classes. He did not want to be identified with an elite group of professional prophets, who may have lost their original fervor. His writings reflect the earthy background of a shepherd (3:12). But he spoke with authority the message given him by the Lord God of Hosts: “I want to see a mighty flood of justice, a river of righteous living that will never run dry” (5:24, <span>nlt<\/span>). The message of Amos was a call to repentance of personal and social sins and a return to the worship of the one true God and to the covenantal standards that made the Jewish people a nation. <em>See<\/em> Amos, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS (Person) Hebrew prophet of the eighth century BC. Nothing is known about Amos apart from the book that bears his name. He was a shepherd living in Tekoa, a village about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of Jerusalem, when God spoke to him in a vision (Am 1:1-2). The kingdom was then divided, with Uzziah king of Judah in the south and Jeroboam II king of Israel in the north. In Amos’s vision, the Lord was like a lion roaring out judgment on injustice and idolatry, especially among God’s own...","summary_en":"AMOS (Person) Hebrew prophet of the eighth century BC. Nothing is known about Amos apart from the book that bears his name. He was a shepherd living in Tekoa, a village about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of Jerusalem, when God spoke to him in a vision (Am 1:1-2). The kingdom was then divided, with Uzziah king of Judah in the south and Jeroboam II king of Israel in the north. In Amos’s vision, the Lord was like a lion roaring out judgment on injustice and idolatry, especially among God’s own...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1438,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2984,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashhur","title_en":"Ashhur","content_ro":"<h3>ASHHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Caleb’s son and Tekoa’s father (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5), or perhaps the founder of a village named Tekoa (2 Sm 14:1-3; Am 1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHHUR<\/h3>\n<p>Caleb’s son and Tekoa’s father (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5), or perhaps the founder of a village named Tekoa (2 Sm 14:1-3; Am 1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHHUR Caleb’s son and Tekoa’s father (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5), or perhaps the founder of a village named Tekoa (2 Sm 14:1-3; Am 1:1).","summary_en":"ASHHUR Caleb’s son and Tekoa’s father (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5), or perhaps the founder of a village named Tekoa (2 Sm 14:1-3; Am 1:1).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6412,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9945,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Earthquake","title_en":"Earthquake","content_ro":"<h3>EARTHQUAKE<\/h3>\n<p>Shaking or trembling of the earth originated by volcanic or tectonic activity. Earthquakes occur frequently in Palestine due mostly to the volcanic nature of the regions around the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee. The primary centers of earthquakes in Palestine are upper Galilee, the Samaritan country near Shechem, and the western edge of the Judean Mountains near Lydda.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “earthquake” indicates a great noise or a tremendous roaring, suggesting that the Israelites were impressed with the rumbling connected with earthquakes.<\/p>\n\n<p>Instances of earthquakes are (1) at Mt Sinai, in connection with God’s giving the law to Moses (Ex 19:18); (2) during the wilderness wandering of the Israelites, when Korah and his followers rebelled against Moses and were destroyed as punishment for their rebellion (Nm 16:31-33); (3) among the Philistines on the occasion when Jonathan and his armor bearer fought a garrison of Philistines (1 Sm 14:15); (4) after Elijah killed the prophets of Baal and, fleeing Jezebel’s wrath, sat under a juniper tree feeling sorry for himself (1 Kgs 19:7-9, 11); (5) in the reign of King Uzziah (Am 1:1); (6) at the death of Jesus on Calvary (Mt 27:51-54); (7) at the resurrection of Jesus (Mt 28:2); and (8) at Philippi while Paul and Silas were in jail (Acts 16:26). Earthquakes are also mentioned as one of the phenomena in connection with the “Day of the Lord” (Zec 14:4-5) and the consummation of this age (Rv 6:12-24; 11:19; 16:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EARTHQUAKE<\/h3>\n<p>Shaking or trembling of the earth originated by volcanic or tectonic activity. Earthquakes occur frequently in Palestine due mostly to the volcanic nature of the regions around the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee. The primary centers of earthquakes in Palestine are upper Galilee, the Samaritan country near Shechem, and the western edge of the Judean Mountains near Lydda.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “earthquake” indicates a great noise or a tremendous roaring, suggesting that the Israelites were impressed with the rumbling connected with earthquakes.<\/p>\n\n<p>Instances of earthquakes are (1) at Mt Sinai, in connection with God’s giving the law to Moses (Ex 19:18); (2) during the wilderness wandering of the Israelites, when Korah and his followers rebelled against Moses and were destroyed as punishment for their rebellion (Nm 16:31-33); (3) among the Philistines on the occasion when Jonathan and his armor bearer fought a garrison of Philistines (1 Sm 14:15); (4) after Elijah killed the prophets of Baal and, fleeing Jezebel’s wrath, sat under a juniper tree feeling sorry for himself (1 Kgs 19:7-9, 11); (5) in the reign of King Uzziah (Am 1:1); (6) at the death of Jesus on Calvary (Mt 27:51-54); (7) at the resurrection of Jesus (Mt 28:2); and (8) at Philippi while Paul and Silas were in jail (Acts 16:26). Earthquakes are also mentioned as one of the phenomena in connection with the “Day of the Lord” (Zec 14:4-5) and the consummation of this age (Rv 6:12-24; 11:19; 16:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EARTHQUAKE Shaking or trembling of the earth originated by volcanic or tectonic activity. Earthquakes occur frequently in Palestine due mostly to the volcanic nature of the regions around the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee. The primary centers of earthquakes in Palestine are upper Galilee, the Samaritan country near Shechem, and the western edge of the Judean Mountains near Lydda. The Hebrew word for “earthquake” indicates a great noise or a tremendous roaring, suggesting that the Israelites...","summary_en":"EARTHQUAKE Shaking or trembling of the earth originated by volcanic or tectonic activity. Earthquakes occur frequently in Palestine due mostly to the volcanic nature of the regions around the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee. The primary centers of earthquakes in Palestine are upper Galilee, the Samaritan country near Shechem, and the western edge of the Judean Mountains near Lydda. The Hebrew word for “earthquake” indicates a great noise or a tremendous roaring, suggesting that the Israelites...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31497,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31698,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophetess Prophet","title_en":"Prophetess Prophet","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHET, PROPHETESS<\/h3>\n<p>A man or woman chosen by God to speak for him and to foretell events in the divine plan.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• The Titles and History of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Inspiration<\/p>\n<p>• True and False Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Function of the Prophet<\/p>\n<p>• Methods of Communication<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus raised the widow’s son from the dead, the onlookers responded by saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” (Lk 7:16; cf. Mk 6:15; 8:28). In Jewish religious thought, the most vivid and formative religious happenings found their focus in the call and ministry of a prophet, through whom God communicated his word to his people. In their appraisal of Jesus, the people were in fact more correct than they knew, for in him God had in reality visited them and he, though so much more than a prophet, was in fact the crown and climax of the prophetic order predicted by Moses (Dt 18:15-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTitlesandHistoryoftheProphets\">The Titles and History of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>The main words used to describe such individuals in the OT are “prophet” (see Jgs 6:8), “man of God” (see 2 Kgs 4:9) and “seer” (see 1 Sm 9:9; 2 Sm 24:11).<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “prophet” seems to have the idea “called” as its first emphasis: God takes the initiative, selects, summons, and sends the prophet (e.g., Jer 1:4-5; 7:25; Am 7:14). “Man of God” speaks of the relationship into which the prophet is brought by his call: he is now “God’s man” and is recognized as belonging to him (2 Kgs 4:9). “Seer” indicates the new and remarkable powers of perception granted to the prophet. In Hebrew, as in English, the ordinary verb “to see” is used also of understanding (“I see what you mean”) and of the power of perception into the nature and meaning of things (“He sees things very clearly”). In the case of the prophets, their powers of “perception” were raised far above normal because the Lord inspired them to become vehicles of his message.<\/p>\n<p>The line of great prophets upon whose shoulders the story of the OT moves forward began with Moses, who is recognized as the prophet par excellence (Dt 34:10). This was a correct perception, for all the distinctive marks of a prophet belonged to Moses: the call (Ex 3:1–4:17; cf. Is 6; Jer 1:4-19; Ez 1–3; Hos 1:2; Am 7:14-15), the awareness of the importance of historical events as the acts of God in which he confirmed his word (Ex 3:12; 4:21-23), ethical and social concern (2:11-13), and championship of the helpless (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>But the comment in Deuteronomy 34:10 not only looks back to the greatness of Moses but also looks forward to the coming of a prophet like Moses. This accords with his own prediction (Dt 18:15-19), which undoubtedly anticipates a single, great individual prophet. Moses makes a striking comparison with himself—the coming prophet will fill just such a role as Moses filled at Mt Sinai (Dt 18:16). On that occasion, Moses acted as the prophetic mediator of the voice of God in a unique sense, for at Sinai God fashioned the old covenant into its completed form. In expecting a prophet cast in this mold, Moses was therefore looking forward to another covenant-mediator, Jesus Christ himself.<\/p>\n<p>The expectation for this great prophet was kept alive as God kept sending prophets to his people. In each case, such a prophet was known to be true by his likeness to Moses; in each case he would be viewed with excitement by genuine believers to see whether he was the great one come at last. In this light we can understand the excitement of the people who saw Jesus raise the dead (Lk 7:16).<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions the existence of prophetic groups, sometimes called “schools.” Elisha clearly had such a group under his instruction (2 Kgs 6:1), and “sons of the prophets” (e.g., 2 Kgs 2:3, 5; Am 7:14) probably refers to “prophet in training” under the care of a master prophet. “Guilds” would be a better description of the groups in 1 Samuel 10:5-11. Such groups enjoyed an enthusiastic, ecstatic worship of the Lord, touched with a marked activity of the Spirit of God. But at the heart of their devotion was “prophecy”—that is, a declaration of the truth about God himself. After this early period, the prophetic groups seem to have diminished in significance (judging by the disappearance of plain references similar to those in 1 Samuel), and the gradual change of things from ecstasy to a more direct ministry of the word could well lie behind the comment in 1 Samuel 9:9.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Inspiration\">Inspiration<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit of the Lord whose inspiration lay behind the activities of the ecstatic groups (1 Sm 10:6, 10; 19:20, 23) was active in all the prophets, and the claim to divine inspiration is plainly registered from time to time (e.g., 1 Kgs 22:24; Neh 9:30; Hos 9:7; Jl 2:28-29; Mi 3:8; cf. 1 Chr 12:18; 2 Chr 15:1; 20:14; 24:20). The Spirit inspired men and women to speak the very words of God (cf. 2 Pt 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah claims that the hand of God was laid on his mouth, putting the words of God into his lips (Jer 1:9); Ezekiel records how he was made to eat a scroll, by which means he received the words the Lord had written and was thus enabled to speak what the Lord called “my words” (Ez 2:7–4:4). The miracle is stated in a nutshell at the beginning of Amos (1:1, 3): “The words of Amos . . . Thus saith the <span>Lord<\/span>.” Though the words were truly Amos’s words, the words were also the Lord’s.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TrueandFalseProphets\">True and False Prophets<\/p>\n<p>False prophets were to be separated from true prophets by means of three tests. The first test was doctrinal. In Deuteronomy 13 the motive of the false prophet was to draw the people away from the God who had revealed himself in the exodus (Dt 13:2, 5-7, 10). Notwithstanding that the word of the false prophet might be supported by apparent signs and wonders (vv 1-2), it was to be refused—not simply because it introduced novelty (vv 2, 6) but because that novelty contradicted the revelation of the Lord at the exodus (vv 5, 10). The first test was thus doctrinal and required that the people of God have knowledge of the truth whereby they could, by comparison, recognize error.<\/p>\n<p>The second test was practical and required patience. It is stated in Deuteronomy 18:21-22: the word of the Lord always comes to pass. This requires patience because, as Deuteronomy 13:1-2 indicates, a false word may be supported by an apparent spiritual proof. The call of Deuteronomy 18:21-22 is a call for patience. Should there be any real doubt about whether a prophetic word is true or false, wait for the confirmatory turn of events.<\/p>\n<p>The third test is moral and calls for watchful discernment. Jeremiah, of all the prophets, was most afflicted in his spirit by the presence of false prophets and gave the longest and most sustained consideration to the problem (Jer 23:9-40). His answer is striking and challenging: the false prophet will be found out as a man of unholy life (vv 11-14) whose message has no note of moral rebuke but rather encourages men in their sin (vv 16-22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFunctionoftheProphet\">The Function of the Prophet<\/p>\n<p>It is sometimes said that prophets are not “foretellers” but “forthtellers.” As far as the OT is concerned, however, the prophets are forthtellers (declaring the truth about God) by being foretellers (predicting what God will do). Prediction is neither an occasional nor a marginal activity in the OT; it is the way the prophet went about his work. Deuteronomy 18:9-15 explains the function of the prophet in Israel: the surrounding nations are revealed as probing into the future by means of a variety of fortune-telling techniques (vv 10-11); these things are forbidden to Israel on the ground of being abominable to the Lord (v 12). Israel’s distinctiveness is maintained in that the nations probe the future by diviners, whereas the Lord gives Israel a prophet (vv 13-15). Elisha (2 Kgs 4:27) is surprised when foreknowledge is denied him; Amos teaches that foreknowledge is the privilege of the prophets in their fellowship with God (Am 3:7). But prediction in Israel was totally unlike prognostication among the nations, for in no way was it motivated by a mere curiosity about the future.<\/p>\n<p>First, biblical prediction arose out of the needs of the present. In Isaiah 39 it is the faithless commitment of Hezekiah to rely for security on a military understanding with Babylon that prompts Isaiah to announce the future Babylonian captivity. Isaiah does not snatch the name Babylon out of thin air; it is given to him within the situation in which he was called to minister.<\/p>\n<p>Second, prediction aimed at giving knowledge of the future was to result in moral reformation in the present. The moral exhortations of the prophets find their explanation in what the Lord is about to do (e.g., Is 31:6-7; Am 5:6).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the predicted course of events was aimed at stabilizing the faith of the true believer in dark times. For example, various passages in Isaiah (Is 9:1-7; 11:1-16; 40:1-3) have the effect of lifting the eyes out of the immediately preceding grim tragedy to the coming glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MethodsofCommunication\">Methods of Communication<\/p>\n<p>In foretelling, the prophets were forthtelling—they were proclaiming the wonderful works of God (cf. the definition of prophecy in Acts 2:11, 17). For the most part, this proclamation was by direct word of mouth. The prophets were men of the word. Their words were like messengers sent by God (Is 55:11), endowed with all the divine efficacy of the creative word of Genesis 1:3 (cf. Ps 33:6). Sometimes the efficacy of the word was enhanced by being accompanied by a sign or symbolic action (e.g., Jer 13:1-11; 19; Ez 4:1-17; 24:15-24), or identified intimately with a person (Is 7:3; cf. 8:1-4). Such things were like visual aids, whereby the word would be made clearer to those present. But it would seem that the intention of the symbolic action (sometimes called an “acted oracle”) was not so much to make understanding easier but to give more power and effect to the word as it was sent like a messenger into that situation. This is the conclusion to be drawn from 2 Kings 13:14-19, where the extent to which the king “embodied” the word in action determined the extent to which the word would prove effective in bringing events to pass.<\/p>\n<p>The final embodiment of the words of the prophets is in the books that have been preserved. Jeremiah 36 may be taken as an object lesson in the fact that the prophets took the time and trouble to record their spoken messages in writing: there was stress on careful word-by-word dictation (Jer 36:6, 17-18). But the actual literary form of the messages themselves tells the same tale. What we find in the books of the prophets cannot be the preached form of their words but rather the studied wording in which they preserved (and filed away) their sermons. It stands to reason that men who were conscious of communicating the very words of God would see to it that those words were not lost. We may take it for granted that every prophet preserved a written record of his ministry. Whether each of the named prophets was himself directly responsible for the final form of his book, we are not told and have no way of knowing. The careful way in which the books of Isaiah or Amos, for example, are arranged is best suited by assuming that the author was also his own editor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophecy; Prophets, False.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHET, PROPHETESS<\/h3>\n<p>A man or woman chosen by God to speak for him and to foretell events in the divine plan.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• The Titles and History of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Inspiration<\/p>\n<p>• True and False Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Function of the Prophet<\/p>\n<p>• Methods of Communication<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus raised the widow’s son from the dead, the onlookers responded by saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” (Lk 7:16; cf. Mk 6:15; 8:28). In Jewish religious thought, the most vivid and formative religious happenings found their focus in the call and ministry of a prophet, through whom God communicated his word to his people. In their appraisal of Jesus, the people were in fact more correct than they knew, for in him God had in reality visited them and he, though so much more than a prophet, was in fact the crown and climax of the prophetic order predicted by Moses (Dt 18:15-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTitlesandHistoryoftheProphets\">The Titles and History of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>The main words used to describe such individuals in the OT are “prophet” (see Jgs 6:8), “man of God” (see 2 Kgs 4:9) and “seer” (see 1 Sm 9:9; 2 Sm 24:11).<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “prophet” seems to have the idea “called” as its first emphasis: God takes the initiative, selects, summons, and sends the prophet (e.g., Jer 1:4-5; 7:25; Am 7:14). “Man of God” speaks of the relationship into which the prophet is brought by his call: he is now “God’s man” and is recognized as belonging to him (2 Kgs 4:9). “Seer” indicates the new and remarkable powers of perception granted to the prophet. In Hebrew, as in English, the ordinary verb “to see” is used also of understanding (“I see what you mean”) and of the power of perception into the nature and meaning of things (“He sees things very clearly”). In the case of the prophets, their powers of “perception” were raised far above normal because the Lord inspired them to become vehicles of his message.<\/p>\n<p>The line of great prophets upon whose shoulders the story of the OT moves forward began with Moses, who is recognized as the prophet par excellence (Dt 34:10). This was a correct perception, for all the distinctive marks of a prophet belonged to Moses: the call (Ex 3:1–4:17; cf. Is 6; Jer 1:4-19; Ez 1–3; Hos 1:2; Am 7:14-15), the awareness of the importance of historical events as the acts of God in which he confirmed his word (Ex 3:12; 4:21-23), ethical and social concern (2:11-13), and championship of the helpless (v 17).<\/p>\n<p>But the comment in Deuteronomy 34:10 not only looks back to the greatness of Moses but also looks forward to the coming of a prophet like Moses. This accords with his own prediction (Dt 18:15-19), which undoubtedly anticipates a single, great individual prophet. Moses makes a striking comparison with himself—the coming prophet will fill just such a role as Moses filled at Mt Sinai (Dt 18:16). On that occasion, Moses acted as the prophetic mediator of the voice of God in a unique sense, for at Sinai God fashioned the old covenant into its completed form. In expecting a prophet cast in this mold, Moses was therefore looking forward to another covenant-mediator, Jesus Christ himself.<\/p>\n<p>The expectation for this great prophet was kept alive as God kept sending prophets to his people. In each case, such a prophet was known to be true by his likeness to Moses; in each case he would be viewed with excitement by genuine believers to see whether he was the great one come at last. In this light we can understand the excitement of the people who saw Jesus raise the dead (Lk 7:16).<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions the existence of prophetic groups, sometimes called “schools.” Elisha clearly had such a group under his instruction (2 Kgs 6:1), and “sons of the prophets” (e.g., 2 Kgs 2:3, 5; Am 7:14) probably refers to “prophet in training” under the care of a master prophet. “Guilds” would be a better description of the groups in 1 Samuel 10:5-11. Such groups enjoyed an enthusiastic, ecstatic worship of the Lord, touched with a marked activity of the Spirit of God. But at the heart of their devotion was “prophecy”—that is, a declaration of the truth about God himself. After this early period, the prophetic groups seem to have diminished in significance (judging by the disappearance of plain references similar to those in 1 Samuel), and the gradual change of things from ecstasy to a more direct ministry of the word could well lie behind the comment in 1 Samuel 9:9.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Inspiration\">Inspiration<\/p>\n<p>The Spirit of the Lord whose inspiration lay behind the activities of the ecstatic groups (1 Sm 10:6, 10; 19:20, 23) was active in all the prophets, and the claim to divine inspiration is plainly registered from time to time (e.g., 1 Kgs 22:24; Neh 9:30; Hos 9:7; Jl 2:28-29; Mi 3:8; cf. 1 Chr 12:18; 2 Chr 15:1; 20:14; 24:20). The Spirit inspired men and women to speak the very words of God (cf. 2 Pt 1:21).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah claims that the hand of God was laid on his mouth, putting the words of God into his lips (Jer 1:9); Ezekiel records how he was made to eat a scroll, by which means he received the words the Lord had written and was thus enabled to speak what the Lord called “my words” (Ez 2:7–4:4). The miracle is stated in a nutshell at the beginning of Amos (1:1, 3): “The words of Amos . . . Thus saith the <span>Lord<\/span>.” Though the words were truly Amos’s words, the words were also the Lord’s.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TrueandFalseProphets\">True and False Prophets<\/p>\n<p>False prophets were to be separated from true prophets by means of three tests. The first test was doctrinal. In Deuteronomy 13 the motive of the false prophet was to draw the people away from the God who had revealed himself in the exodus (Dt 13:2, 5-7, 10). Notwithstanding that the word of the false prophet might be supported by apparent signs and wonders (vv 1-2), it was to be refused—not simply because it introduced novelty (vv 2, 6) but because that novelty contradicted the revelation of the Lord at the exodus (vv 5, 10). The first test was thus doctrinal and required that the people of God have knowledge of the truth whereby they could, by comparison, recognize error.<\/p>\n<p>The second test was practical and required patience. It is stated in Deuteronomy 18:21-22: the word of the Lord always comes to pass. This requires patience because, as Deuteronomy 13:1-2 indicates, a false word may be supported by an apparent spiritual proof. The call of Deuteronomy 18:21-22 is a call for patience. Should there be any real doubt about whether a prophetic word is true or false, wait for the confirmatory turn of events.<\/p>\n<p>The third test is moral and calls for watchful discernment. Jeremiah, of all the prophets, was most afflicted in his spirit by the presence of false prophets and gave the longest and most sustained consideration to the problem (Jer 23:9-40). His answer is striking and challenging: the false prophet will be found out as a man of unholy life (vv 11-14) whose message has no note of moral rebuke but rather encourages men in their sin (vv 16-22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFunctionoftheProphet\">The Function of the Prophet<\/p>\n<p>It is sometimes said that prophets are not “foretellers” but “forthtellers.” As far as the OT is concerned, however, the prophets are forthtellers (declaring the truth about God) by being foretellers (predicting what God will do). Prediction is neither an occasional nor a marginal activity in the OT; it is the way the prophet went about his work. Deuteronomy 18:9-15 explains the function of the prophet in Israel: the surrounding nations are revealed as probing into the future by means of a variety of fortune-telling techniques (vv 10-11); these things are forbidden to Israel on the ground of being abominable to the Lord (v 12). Israel’s distinctiveness is maintained in that the nations probe the future by diviners, whereas the Lord gives Israel a prophet (vv 13-15). Elisha (2 Kgs 4:27) is surprised when foreknowledge is denied him; Amos teaches that foreknowledge is the privilege of the prophets in their fellowship with God (Am 3:7). But prediction in Israel was totally unlike prognostication among the nations, for in no way was it motivated by a mere curiosity about the future.<\/p>\n<p>First, biblical prediction arose out of the needs of the present. In Isaiah 39 it is the faithless commitment of Hezekiah to rely for security on a military understanding with Babylon that prompts Isaiah to announce the future Babylonian captivity. Isaiah does not snatch the name Babylon out of thin air; it is given to him within the situation in which he was called to minister.<\/p>\n<p>Second, prediction aimed at giving knowledge of the future was to result in moral reformation in the present. The moral exhortations of the prophets find their explanation in what the Lord is about to do (e.g., Is 31:6-7; Am 5:6).<\/p>\n<p>Third, the predicted course of events was aimed at stabilizing the faith of the true believer in dark times. For example, various passages in Isaiah (Is 9:1-7; 11:1-16; 40:1-3) have the effect of lifting the eyes out of the immediately preceding grim tragedy to the coming glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MethodsofCommunication\">Methods of Communication<\/p>\n<p>In foretelling, the prophets were forthtelling—they were proclaiming the wonderful works of God (cf. the definition of prophecy in Acts 2:11, 17). For the most part, this proclamation was by direct word of mouth. The prophets were men of the word. Their words were like messengers sent by God (Is 55:11), endowed with all the divine efficacy of the creative word of Genesis 1:3 (cf. Ps 33:6). Sometimes the efficacy of the word was enhanced by being accompanied by a sign or symbolic action (e.g., Jer 13:1-11; 19; Ez 4:1-17; 24:15-24), or identified intimately with a person (Is 7:3; cf. 8:1-4). Such things were like visual aids, whereby the word would be made clearer to those present. But it would seem that the intention of the symbolic action (sometimes called an “acted oracle”) was not so much to make understanding easier but to give more power and effect to the word as it was sent like a messenger into that situation. This is the conclusion to be drawn from 2 Kings 13:14-19, where the extent to which the king “embodied” the word in action determined the extent to which the word would prove effective in bringing events to pass.<\/p>\n<p>The final embodiment of the words of the prophets is in the books that have been preserved. Jeremiah 36 may be taken as an object lesson in the fact that the prophets took the time and trouble to record their spoken messages in writing: there was stress on careful word-by-word dictation (Jer 36:6, 17-18). But the actual literary form of the messages themselves tells the same tale. What we find in the books of the prophets cannot be the preached form of their words but rather the studied wording in which they preserved (and filed away) their sermons. It stands to reason that men who were conscious of communicating the very words of God would see to it that those words were not lost. We may take it for granted that every prophet preserved a written record of his ministry. Whether each of the named prophets was himself directly responsible for the final form of his book, we are not told and have no way of knowing. The careful way in which the books of Isaiah or Amos, for example, are arranged is best suited by assuming that the author was also his own editor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophecy; Prophets, False.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHET, PROPHETESS A man or woman chosen by God to speak for him and to foretell events in the divine plan. Preview • Introduction • The Titles and History of the Prophets • Inspiration • True and False Prophets • The Function of the Prophet • Methods of Communication Introduction When Jesus raised the widow’s son from the dead, the onlookers responded by saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” (Lk 7:16; cf. Mk 6:15; 8:28). In Jewish religious thought, the most vivid and formative rel...","summary_en":"PROPHET, PROPHETESS A man or woman chosen by God to speak for him and to foretell events in the divine plan. Preview • Introduction • The Titles and History of the Prophets • Inspiration • True and False Prophets • The Function of the Prophet • Methods of Communication Introduction When Jesus raised the widow’s son from the dead, the onlookers responded by saying, “A great prophet has arisen among us!” (Lk 7:16; cf. Mk 6:15; 8:28). In Jewish religious thought, the most vivid and formative rel...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36890,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tekoa, Tekoites*","title_en":"Tekoa, Tekoites*","content_ro":"<h3>TEKOA, TEKOITES*<\/h3>\n<p>City about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem on the edge of the Judean desert, and its residents. Tekoa may also be the name of a person, the son of Ashur of Judah’s tribe; “father” could mean founder or leader of Tekoa (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5). Tekoa does not appear on the list of cities given to Judah (Jos 15). In an oracle predicting the siege of Judah, Jeremiah (Jer 6:1) makes a pun with the phrase “Sound the trumpet in Tekoa.” The Hebrew word for “sound” is spelled with the same consonants (but not vowels) as Tekoa.<\/p>\n<p>Tekoa is located on the high ground between two watersheds, both of which flow eastward to the Dead Sea. The southern slopes climb off to the upper reaches of the Nahal Arugot, which eventually comes out at En-gedi. The northern slopes are drained by the Nahal Darga. The ridge between them is the Ascent (or Pass) of Ziz (2 Chr 20:16). Because Tekoa lies between the desert and the town on the marginal land just east of the main north-south watershed, the area around it came to be known as the desert of Tekoa (2 Chr 20:20), a part of the larger desert of Judea. Tekoa marks the border where farming gives way to herding, explaining why Amos, a native of Tekoa, had two dimensions to his preprophetic career: a herdsman and a dresser of sycamore trees (Am 1:1; 7:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEKOA, TEKOITES*<\/h3>\n<p>City about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem on the edge of the Judean desert, and its residents. Tekoa may also be the name of a person, the son of Ashur of Judah’s tribe; “father” could mean founder or leader of Tekoa (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5). Tekoa does not appear on the list of cities given to Judah (Jos 15). In an oracle predicting the siege of Judah, Jeremiah (Jer 6:1) makes a pun with the phrase “Sound the trumpet in Tekoa.” The Hebrew word for “sound” is spelled with the same consonants (but not vowels) as Tekoa.<\/p>\n<p>Tekoa is located on the high ground between two watersheds, both of which flow eastward to the Dead Sea. The southern slopes climb off to the upper reaches of the Nahal Arugot, which eventually comes out at En-gedi. The northern slopes are drained by the Nahal Darga. The ridge between them is the Ascent (or Pass) of Ziz (2 Chr 20:16). Because Tekoa lies between the desert and the town on the marginal land just east of the main north-south watershed, the area around it came to be known as the desert of Tekoa (2 Chr 20:20), a part of the larger desert of Judea. Tekoa marks the border where farming gives way to herding, explaining why Amos, a native of Tekoa, had two dimensions to his preprophetic career: a herdsman and a dresser of sycamore trees (Am 1:1; 7:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEKOA, TEKOITES* City about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem on the edge of the Judean desert, and its residents. Tekoa may also be the name of a person, the son of Ashur of Judah’s tribe; “father” could mean founder or leader of Tekoa (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5). Tekoa does not appear on the list of cities given to Judah (Jos 15). In an oracle predicting the siege of Judah, Jeremiah (Jer 6:1) makes a pun with the phrase “Sound the trumpet in Tekoa.” The Hebrew word for “sound” is spel...","summary_en":"TEKOA, TEKOITES* City about six miles (9.7 kilometers) southeast of Bethlehem on the edge of the Judean desert, and its residents. Tekoa may also be the name of a person, the son of Ashur of Judah’s tribe; “father” could mean founder or leader of Tekoa (1 Chr 2:24; 4:5). Tekoa does not appear on the list of cities given to Judah (Jos 15). In an oracle predicting the siege of Judah, Jeremiah (Jer 6:1) makes a pun with the phrase “Sound the trumpet in Tekoa.” The Hebrew word for “sound” is spel...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37957,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uzziah","title_en":"Uzziah","content_ro":"<h3>UZZIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judah’s king from around 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23), the son of King Amaziah and Jecoliah of Jerusalem. Uzziah is the name he is called in Chronicles, but in Kings he is known as Azariah. Azariah means “the Lord has helped”; the meaning of Uzziah is “my strength is the Lord.” Azariah may have been his given name and Uzziah a throne name taken upon his accession. He came to the throne at the age of 16, after the death of his father, who was assassinated in Lachish as a result of a conspiracy arising from his apostasy.<\/li>\n<p>Uzziah was a capable, energetic, and well-organized person, with many diverse interests. The Lord blessed him in all of his undertakings, so that he prospered. He is characterized as one who “did what was right in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kgs 15:3; 2 Chr 26:4). He determined to seek God and went to Zechariah (not the postexilic prophet) for spiritual instruction. Consequently, “as long as he sought the <span>Lord<\/span>, God made him prosper” (2 Chr 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of the Lord were active during his reign. Isaiah, Hosea, and Amos began their prophetic work in the time of Uzziah (Is 1:1; Hos 1:1; Am 1:1). Uzziah was also active with military campaigns. His primary success was against Israel’s strong historical enemy, the Philistines. He broke down the walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod and built his own cities in Philistia. He also built many fortifications, such as fortified towers in Jerusalem and in the wilderness. He defeated some Arabs and also the Meunites, and he brought the Ammonites under tribute (2 Chr 27:5-8). Uzziah had an army “fit for war,” which was drafted according to census and organized into divisions. There were 2,600 officers and 307,500 fighting men who could wage war with mighty power. The army was well outfitted, with weapons, such as spears, bows, and sling stones, and with defensive equipment, including shields, helmets, and coats of armor (2 Chr 26:14). Second Chronicles 26:15 describes a kind of catapult, which was to be stationed on the towers and at the corners of walls for defensive purposes. This type of weapon could hurl arrows or large stones. Through his achievements and especially his military power, he became famous.<\/p>\n<p>But Uzziah had a sad downfall. As Proverbs 16:18 says, pride goes before a fall. His pride became clearly evident when he presumed the function of a priest. When he entered the temple to offer incense on the altar of incense, he was confronted for his presumptuous behavior by Azariah the priest and 80 other priests. When Uzziah became angry, the Lord struck him with leprosy, so that he was forced to live in isolation and could not enter the temple. His son, Jotham, became acting head of state and then succeeded to the kingship at the time of Uzziah’s death.<\/p>\n<li>2. Kohathite Levite and forefather of Samuel (1 Chr 6:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Jonathan, David’s treasurer (1 Chr 27:25).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of Harim’s five sons who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:21; 1 Esd 9:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. Descendant of Perez from Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>UZZIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judah’s king from around 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23), the son of King Amaziah and Jecoliah of Jerusalem. Uzziah is the name he is called in Chronicles, but in Kings he is known as Azariah. Azariah means “the Lord has helped”; the meaning of Uzziah is “my strength is the Lord.” Azariah may have been his given name and Uzziah a throne name taken upon his accession. He came to the throne at the age of 16, after the death of his father, who was assassinated in Lachish as a result of a conspiracy arising from his apostasy.<\/li>\n<p>Uzziah was a capable, energetic, and well-organized person, with many diverse interests. The Lord blessed him in all of his undertakings, so that he prospered. He is characterized as one who “did what was right in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kgs 15:3; 2 Chr 26:4). He determined to seek God and went to Zechariah (not the postexilic prophet) for spiritual instruction. Consequently, “as long as he sought the <span>Lord<\/span>, God made him prosper” (2 Chr 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of the Lord were active during his reign. Isaiah, Hosea, and Amos began their prophetic work in the time of Uzziah (Is 1:1; Hos 1:1; Am 1:1). Uzziah was also active with military campaigns. His primary success was against Israel’s strong historical enemy, the Philistines. He broke down the walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod and built his own cities in Philistia. He also built many fortifications, such as fortified towers in Jerusalem and in the wilderness. He defeated some Arabs and also the Meunites, and he brought the Ammonites under tribute (2 Chr 27:5-8). Uzziah had an army “fit for war,” which was drafted according to census and organized into divisions. There were 2,600 officers and 307,500 fighting men who could wage war with mighty power. The army was well outfitted, with weapons, such as spears, bows, and sling stones, and with defensive equipment, including shields, helmets, and coats of armor (2 Chr 26:14). Second Chronicles 26:15 describes a kind of catapult, which was to be stationed on the towers and at the corners of walls for defensive purposes. This type of weapon could hurl arrows or large stones. Through his achievements and especially his military power, he became famous.<\/p>\n<p>But Uzziah had a sad downfall. As Proverbs 16:18 says, pride goes before a fall. His pride became clearly evident when he presumed the function of a priest. When he entered the temple to offer incense on the altar of incense, he was confronted for his presumptuous behavior by Azariah the priest and 80 other priests. When Uzziah became angry, the Lord struck him with leprosy, so that he was forced to live in isolation and could not enter the temple. His son, Jotham, became acting head of state and then succeeded to the kingship at the time of Uzziah’s death.<\/p>\n<li>2. Kohathite Levite and forefather of Samuel (1 Chr 6:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Jonathan, David’s treasurer (1 Chr 27:25).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of Harim’s five sons who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:21; 1 Esd 9:21).<\/li>\n<li>5. Descendant of Perez from Judah’s tribe (Neh 11:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"UZZIAH 1. Judah’s king from around 792 to 740 BC (cf. 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23), the son of King Amaziah and Jecoliah of Jerusalem. Uzziah is the name he is called in Chronicles, but in Kings he is known as Azariah. Azariah means “the Lord has helped”; the meaning of Uzziah is “my strength is the Lord.” Azariah may have been his given name and Uzziah a throne name taken upon his accession. He came to the throne at the age of 16, after the death of his father, who was assassinated...","summary_en":"UZZIAH 1. Judah’s king from around 792 to 740 BC (cf. 2 Kgs 14:21-22; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23), the son of King Amaziah and Jecoliah of Jerusalem. Uzziah is the name he is called in Chronicles, but in Kings he is known as Azariah. Azariah means “the Lord has helped”; the meaning of Uzziah is “my strength is the Lord.” Azariah may have been his given name and Uzziah a throne name taken upon his accession. He came to the throne at the age of 16, after the death of his father, who was assassinated...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53875,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","summary_en":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81501,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","summary_en":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109127,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","summary_en":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136753,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:1<\/strong> <em>message<\/em> (literally <em>words<\/em>): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • <em>shepherd<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">noqed<\/span>): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">boqer,<\/span> which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the court or the Temple. • Amos <em>received this message in visions<\/em>—that is, by divine revelation (see Isa 1:1). • Amos depicts <em>the earthquake<\/em> that occurred during the reign of Uzziah (Zech 14:5) as an act of God’s judgment (Amos 3:14-15; 6:11, 14; 8:8; 9:1, 9). • <em>Uzziah<\/em>, also called Azariah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), was the most powerful king of Judah after the division of the kingdom. • <em>Jeroboam II<\/em> (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>), who descended from the dynasty of Jehu, took advantage of a power vacuum in the region and recovered territory earlier lost to the Arameans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","summary_en":"1:1 message (literally words): This standard way of introducing a prophetic message (Jer 1:1; see also Hag 1:12) emphasizes its form and content. • shepherd (Hebrew noqed): This word is used just one other time in the Old Testament, to describe the king of Moab as a “sheep breeder” (2 Kgs 3:4). Amos describes his vocation in Amos 7:14 using a different Hebrew word (boqer, which means “herder”; see Amos Book Introduction, “The Prophet Amos”). Amos was not a professional prophet serving the cou...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64458,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92084,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119710,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147336,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":1457,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16125,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hell","title_en":"Hell","content_ro":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\n<p>Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionandDescription\">Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Other expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\n<p>A summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\n<p>Although the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\n<p>Punishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalTerms\">Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>It was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>As noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJusticeofEternalPunishment\">The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\n<p>The impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\n<p>If the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\n<p>While the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\n<p>From all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELL<\/h3>\n<p>Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>• Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>• The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefinitionandDescription\">Definition and Description<\/p>\n<p>Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt 25:41). Evidently, those in hell experience everlasting separation from the Lord, never to see the glory of his power (2 Thes 1:9). Those who worshiped the beast will be subject to continuous torment (Rv 14:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Other expressions that indicate that the final state of the wicked is eternal are these: “burn with unquenchable fire” (Mt 3:12); “to the unquenchable fire . . . where their worm does not die, and the fire is not quenched” (Mk 9:43, 48); there is sin that “will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come” (Mt 12:32, <span>rsv<\/span>). When Scripture is understood properly, there is no hint anywhere of the termination of the terrible state of unbelievers in hell. Their doom is unending; there is a solemn finality about their miserable condition. (It is significant that the most descriptive and conclusive utterances about hell come from the lips of Jesus.)<\/p>\n<p>A summary of all Scripture that speaks of hell indicates that there is the loss and absence of all good, and the misery and torment of an evil conscience. The most terrifying aspect is the complete and deserved separation from God and from all that is pure, holy, and beautiful. In addition, there is the awareness of being under the wrath of God and of enduring the curse of a righteous sentence because of one’s sins that were consciously and voluntarily committed.<\/p>\n<p>Although the biblical descriptions of hell are stated in very physical and literal terms, the essential character of hell should not be conceived in or limited to designations such as the worm that devours, the stripes that are inflicted, the burning or being consumed by fire. This affirmation does not detract from the horror or the gravity of the situation in hell, because nothing could possibly be worse than separation from God and the torment of an evil conscience. Hell is hell for those who are there essentially because they are completely alienated from God, and wherever there is alienation from God, there is always estrangement from one’s fellows. This is the worst possible punishment to which anyone could be subject: to be totally and irrevocably cut off from God and to be at enmity with all those who are around oneself. Another painful consequence of such a condition is to be at odds with oneself—torn apart from within by an accusing sense of guilt and shame. This condition is one of total conflict: with God, one’s neighbors, and oneself. This is hell! If the descriptions of hell are figurative or symbolic, the conditions they represent are more intense and real than the figures of speech in which they are expressed.<\/p>\n<p>Punishment for sin is a persistent teaching of the Bible. The doctrine of judgment is as extensive as the Canon itself. Typical of such passages are Genesis 2:17; 3:17-19; 4:13; Leviticus 26:27-33; Psalm 149:7; Isaiah 3:11; Ezekiel 14:10; Amos 1:2–2:16; Zechariah 14:19; Matthew 25:41, 46; Luke 16:23-24; Romans 2:5-12; Galatians 6:7-8; Hebrews 10:29-31; and Revelation 20:11-15.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalTerms\">Biblical Terms<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word “Sheol” in the OT is predominantly used for “the grave, the pit, the place of the departed dead” (Gn 37:35; Jb 7:9; 14:13; 17:13-16; Pss 6:5; 16:10; 55:15; Prv 9:18; Eccl 9:10; Is 14:11; 38:10-12, 18). There does not seem to be a very clear distinction in the OT between the final destiny of the good and the evil. They all alike go to the grave, to the world below, a world of gloom, weariness, darkness, decay, and forgetfulness, where one is remote from God (Jb 10:20-22; Ps 88:3-6), yet accessible to him (Jb 26:6; Ps 138:8; Am 9:2). It is a place characterized by silence (Pss 94:17; 115:17) and rest (Jb 3:17). Other texts, however, seem to suggest some aspect of consciousness, hope, and communication in Sheol (Jb 14:13-15; 19:25-27; Pss 16:10; 49:15; Is 14:9-10; Ez 32:21). A few texts seem to suggest the threat of divine judgment after death (Pss 9:17; 55:15). On the whole, Sheol was regarded with dismay and foreboding (Dt 32:22; Is 38:18).<\/p>\n<p>It was not until the time of the postcanonical Jewish literature, the writings that were developed between the close of the OT and the beginning of NT times, that clear distinctions were made between the final destinies of the righteous and the unrighteous. The idea of separate divisions within Sheol for the good and the evil was developed. It is unmistakable that there was in Jewish thought, as reflected throughout the OT, a belief in a future and continued existence beyond death, however shadowy and indefinite the concept.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “hades” in the NT is used very similarly to “Sheol” in the OT. It was, in fact, used by the translators of the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, for Sheol. It designated in general the place or state of the dead, the grave, or death itself. In some versions the word is not translated at all but is transliterated simply as “hades.” The NT is not always very explicit about the meaning of hades, other than what has just been described. Use of the word often does not reveal much about the specific condition of the dead. There are some passages, however, that indicate a distinct advance over the use of Sheol in the OT. One NT passage definitely describes hades as a place of evil and punishment of the wicked, and may appropriately be translated “hell” (Lk 16:23). In all other instances, hades indicates nothing more than the place of the dead.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word “Gehenna” is used in a number of NT texts to designate the fiery place for punishment of sinners and is often translated “hell” or “the fires of hell” (Mt 5:22, 29-30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Jas 3:6). It is usually used in connection with the final judgment and often has the suggestion that the punishment spoken of is eternal. Gehenna is derived by transliteration from the Hebrew of the OT “valley of Hinnom” or the “valley of the son of Hinnom,” a ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. This valley was the center of idolatrous worship in which children were burned by fire as an offering to the heathen god Molech (2 Chr 28:3; 33:6). In the time of Josiah it became a place of abomination, polluted by dead men’s bones and rubbish (2 Kgs 23:10-14) and by the garbage and filth of Jerusalem dumped there. A fire burned continuously in this valley. It thus became a symbol of the unending fires of hell where the lost are consumed in torment. It was a symbol of judgment to be imposed on the idolatrous and disobedient (Jer 7:31-34; 32:35).<\/p>\n<p>Another Greek word used to designate hell or “the lower regions” is “Tartarus” (2 Pt 2:4), a classical word for the place of eternal punishment. The apostle Peter uses it for the fallen angels who were thrown into hell, “committed . . . to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>As noted above, there are, in addition to these terms, the very explicit and vivid phrases that clearly teach the doctrine of hell, as developed at the beginning of this article. The biblical doctrine is determined much more by these decisive phrases than by the somewhat indecisive but frequently used terms “Sheol” and “hades.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheJusticeofEternalPunishment\">The Justice of Eternal Punishment<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult for us to understand the righteous judgment of a holy God who, on one hand, hates all evil, yet, on the other hand, loves the evildoers enough to sacrifice his only Son for their salvation from sin. Divine wrath is the necessary reaction of a holy God who hates all that is contrary to his righteous nature. When the only remedy for human sin is rejected and all appeals of a loving, seeking God for the reconciliation of rebellious sinners are refused, there is no other course of action that God himself can pursue but to leave the sinner to his self-chosen destiny. Punishment for sin is then the inevitable and inescapable response of holiness to that which is morally opposite, and it must continue as long as the sinful condition requiring it continues. There is no indication anywhere in Scripture that lost sinners in hell are capable of repentance and faith. If in this life they did not turn away from sin and receive Christ as Savior with all the favorable circumstances and opportunities afforded them on earth, it is unreasonable to think they will do so in the life to come. Punishment cannot come to an end until guilt and sin come to an end. When the sinner ultimately resists and rejects the work of the Holy Spirit whereby he is convicted of sin, there remains no more possibility of repentance or salvation. He has committed an eternal sin (Mk 3:29; Rv 22:11), which deserves eternal punishment.<\/p>\n<p>The impossibility of faith and repentance in hell is seen also from the tragic reality of the depraved will, conditioned and determined by its repeated rebellion against God. Sin reproduces itself in the will, and character tends to become irrevocably fixed. God responds to endless sinning with the necessary counterpart of endless punishment.<\/p>\n<p>If the question is raised, How can a loving God send people to an everlasting hell? it must be replied that God does not choose this destination for people; they freely choose it for themselves. God simply concurs in their self-chosen way and reveals the full consequences of their evil choice. It must always be remembered that God is not only loving; he is also holy and righteous. There must be some adequate reckoning with justice in the universe where a revolt against God has brought evil consequences of enormous proportions.<\/p>\n<p>While the duration of punishment in hell is eternal for all who have chosen that destiny for themselves, there are degrees of punishment proportional to the degrees of guilt of each individual. Only God is able to determine what those degrees are, and he will assign the consequences with perfect justice according to the responsibility of each one. Evidence of such gradations in future punishment is found in Scripture (Mt 11:20-24; Lk 12:47-48; Rv 20:12-13; cf. Ez 16:48-61). An obvious comparison is made in these texts between the differing intensities of punishment that are involved in the contrasting privileges, knowledge, and opportunities.<\/p>\n<p>From all that has been said, it should be obvious that a variety of nonbiblical views must be ruled out, however attractively they may be presented by their advocates and however popular they may be from time to time. Among these views are the erroneous, but sometimes persuasive, doctrines of universalism, annihilationism, and second probation. Universalism promotes the concept that God will save everyone in the end. Annihilationism teaches that hell is not a place of conscious suffering but of final extermination. And second probation is a notion that people can be delivered from hell. It must always be remembered that the Bible is our rule of faith for the doctrine of hell, however difficult the doctrine may seem for natural reason or for human sentiment. Scripture leaves no doubt about the terrible nature and the eternal duration of hell. Rejection or neglect of this doctrine will have dire effects upon the mission of the church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; Dead, Place of the; Death; Gehenna; Hades; Intermediate State; Sheol; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","summary_en":"HELL Place of future punishment for the lost, unrepentant, wicked dead. Preview • Definition and Description • Biblical Terms • The Justice of Eternal Punishment Definition and Description Hell is the final destiny of unbelievers and is variously described by the figures of a furnace of fire, eternal fire, eternal punishment (Mt 13:42, 50; 25:41, 46); outer darkness, the place of weeping and torment (8:12); the lake of fire, the second death (Rv 21:8); a place for the devil and his demons (Mt...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20055,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Joel","title_en":"Book of Joel","content_ro":"<h3>JOEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book; second of the Minor Prophets.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In the first verse the contents of the book of Joel are described as the “message” of the Lord that “came to Joel, the son of Pethuel.” We are told nothing more in Scripture about Joel or Pethuel. The name Joel was common; there are 13 different Joels in the OT. From what is said in the book, it would seem that Joel was not a priest but was closely associated with the priests of the temple, and in all probability a man of Jerusalem. More than that we cannot say.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Many different views of the date of Joel have been taken by those who have studied this book carefully; thus it is difficult to be dogmatic. The book may be dated to a time after the return to Jerusalem of the Jewish exiles who had been in Babylon—more precisely, to a time after Nehemiah’s work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem (c. 400 <span>BC<\/span>). Reasons given in support of this are as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. Joel 3:2 says that the people of Judah and Jerusalem had been scattered among the nations and their land divided up, but they have been brought back, and their city once again has its walls (2:9).<\/p>\n<li>2. When a call is issued to prayer and fasting, the priests and elders are to take the lead (1:13; 2:16-17). There is no mention of a king at any point in the book. There were kings until the time of the exile, but not for 400 years after it.<\/li>\n<li>3. The preexilic prophets—Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah—were often critical of the people for offering sacrifices while they departed from the ways of the Lord in their daily lives. Postexilic prophets like Haggai and Malachi offer encouragement and deep concern for the offering of sacrifices. In the preexilic prophets there was constant rebuke of the people for their worship of idols; this was not a problem with the people after the exile. In both these concerns Joel seems to fit better the postexilic than the preexilic scene.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is no reference to the northern kingdom of Israel in this book. Much is said of Judah and Jerusalem; when “Israel” is spoken of, the reference seems to be to the same people (2:27; 3:16). We would expect to find a different way of speaking before the fall of the northern kingdom to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>5. The other kingdoms referred to are Edom, Tyre and Sidon, the Philistines, and the Greeks. There is no mention of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia, the inveterate enemies from whom the people suffered so much in preexilic days. Those mentioned were certainly significant to the people in postexilic times, and only then are the Greeks of importance on the Palestinian scene.<\/li>\n<p>Some scholars think there is no great strength in these arguments and that everything in the book can be made to fit a much earlier date. It has sometimes been argued that the book is deliberately placed in the Hebrew Scriptures alongside the two eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets Hosea and Amos. But the order of the books in the prophetic canon does not determine their date. The postexilic Obadiah stands between the eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets Amos and Micah, and in fact in the Greek OT Joel was placed in a different position from its place in the Hebrew Bible. Most likely Joel and Amos stand together, as Amos 1:2 has the same words found at the close of the book of Joel (Jl 3:16). Some of those who favor a preexilic date for the book place it in the ninth century, in the early period of the reign of Joash when the king was too young to actually function as ruler of the land. Others place it sometime shortly before the death of Josiah in 609 <span>BC<\/span> because of the reference to the enemy coming from the north (as in Jeremiah) and because of the appeal to the people (like Jeremiah’s appeal) to return to the Lord with all their hearts (2:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>1:1-12<\/h5>\n<p>A plague of locusts more devastating than any that past generations had experienced had come on the land (vv 2-4). Drinkers were summoned to see the grapevines devastated and the fig trees stripped (vv 5-7). People were called to mourn at the sight of fields laid waste—especially the priests, as they would no longer be able to bring cereal and drink offerings to the Lord (vv 8-10). Farmers must grieve over the ruin of their harvest, in anguish at the loss of the fruits of the land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h5>1:13-20<\/h5>\n<p>Because of what had happened, the people were called to prayer and fasting; the priests were to come before the Lord in sackcloth, grieving that no offerings could be brought (v 13). Elders and people alike must come to the temple to pray (v 14). Such a time of crisis, with the crops lost and the sheep and cattle having no pasture, was to be seen as foreshadowing the great coming Day of the Lord, for which everyone should be prepared (vv 15-18). The prophet himself could only cry out to God when he saw the devastation of the land (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n\n<h5>2:1-11<\/h5>\n<p>In this section the prophet speaks of a time when God’s judgment threatens the whole land. It is a time for the alarm to be sounded, when a great and powerful “people” come up on the land, a more threatening foe than any known before. Further, it is a warning of the coming “Day of the Lord,” “a day of darkness and gloom” (vv 1-2). The land is devastated as by fire; what was like the Garden of Eden becomes a wilderness (v 3). This invasion is like that of cavalry and the sound of the insurgents like “the rumbling of chariots.” Everyone is in anguish at their advance. They march like warriors, burst through the weapons, scale the walls of the city, and come into the houses like thieves (vv 4-9).<\/p>\n<p>Some have taken this description to be a picture of armies of nations who are the foes of Israel, used by the Lord in judgment on his own people. But in that they are described as horses in battle, their noise like “the rumbling of chariots,” their advance “like a mighty army moving into battle,” it seems that the locust plague is still in mind. Yet the dark cloud of the locusts in the sky and their terrible effect on the land foreshadows the great day when the Lord will speak and act in judgment on all peoples. Then heaven and earth will tremble; sun, moon, and stars will be darkened (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<h5>2:12-17<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet repeatedly calls the people to the Lord in humility and penitence so that his mercy and grace may be found. Then it will be possible “to offer grain and wine to the <span>Lord<\/span> your God as before” (v 14, <span>nlt<\/span>). A fast is to be appointed, a solemn assembly of young and old called. Even the newlyweds are to come. The priests must lead the people in prayer to God to spare his people (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<h5>2:18-27<\/h5>\n<p>According to this passage, it seems that the people did turn to God as the prophet required; in response, the Lord had compassion on them and assured them of renewing their grain, wine, and oil, and removing their reproach (vv 18-19). The “armies from the north” would retreat, and God would restore the pastures of the land, its fruit trees, and its vines (vv 20-22). The people would rejoice, and with the blessing of the early and late rains the land would again be abundantly productive. The losses from the locust plague would be made good (vv 23-25). People would eat food in plenty and praise God. They would know that the one great living God was among them, and they would not be put to shame anymore (vv 26-27).<\/p>\n<h5>2:28-32<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet also saw that the blessing experienced in this renewal after the plague of locusts foreshadowed greater blessings to come, just as the judgment experienced brought the warning of the great and terrible Day of the Lord to come. God would do greater things for his people in the future; in particular, he would pour out his Spirit on men and women, young and old, slave and free (vv 28-29). There would be awe-inspiring signs in heaven and on earth (vv 30-31). All who called on the name of the Lord would know his salvation (v 32).<\/p>\n<h5>3:1-15<\/h5>\n<p>The meaning of the Day of the Lord for Israel as a nation and its significance for all nations must be realized. God’s people would find restoration by turning to him; those who had scattered them, taken their land, and sold them as slaves would come under his judgment (vv 1-3). Tyre and Sidon and the Philistines especially would have to give account for what they had done, taking the Lord’s silver and gold, removing his people from their land, and selling them as slaves to the Greeks. The sons and daughters of these slave traders would in turn be sold as slaves (vv 4-8). So the nations must be prepared for war—to melt their plowshares into swords and to beat pruning hooks into spears—but not for a battle between human armies. Those who have fought against the living God must reckon with him as a mighty warrior (vv 9-11). This mighty warrior is coming to execute judgment. The scene changes from a battleground to a court of justice; great crowds will stand before the Lord “in the valley of decision” on the Day of the Lord, which is a day of dread darkness for those who have made themselves enemies of the Almighty (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<h5>3:16-21<\/h5>\n<p>After men have spoken and done their worst, God will speak and act. He will show himself to be his people’s “refuge and strength” (v 16). Their city will then be kept from invasion by strangers (v 17). Their land will be wonderfully productive (v 18). Because of what Egypt and Edom have done in violence to Judah, they will be desolate (v 19). Israel will be avenged and restored, and to all it will be clear that the Lord’s home is in Jerusalem with his people (vv 20-21).<\/p>\n<p>This account of the contents of the book is based on the view that Joel experienced a plague of locusts in his day and that he saw this as a warning of a greater judgment of God to come. At the same time, he also spoke of a greater restoration and blessing when the people turned back to God with prayer and fasting. Others see the enemies throughout the book as human foes, at least in chapter 2. Some think of the whole book as prophetic of battles to come, and in particular of a final battle of the Lord against those who have made themselves his enemies. Some think of two prophets, or two parts of the book written at different times. But the view of the book taken above seems exposed to the fewest difficulties and makes good sense and meaning of the whole.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>What can be said finally of the abiding significance of the message of Joel? His, like that of most of the OT prophets, was a message of mercy and judgment. Such a catastrophe as a plague of locusts was a warning of God’s judgment of all men and nations, within history and ultimately at the great Day of the Lord at the consummation of history, when all will be gathered before him. The message of Joel, with its challenge to repentance arising from the events of his time, can be set alongside the words of Jesus himself when he was asked about those who had suffered in the catastrophic events of his time. When asked whether they were worse sinners than others, he answered in the negative, but with the warning, “Unless you repent, you will all of you come to the same end” (Lk 13:5, <span>neb<\/span>). The word of God through Joel called people to turn back to him to find his mercy; then to the assurance of mercy was added the hope of the greater things that God in his goodness would do. He would pour out his Spirit freely on all. These words of promise (Jl 2:28) were made more significant than any others in the book of Joel by their quotation in the NT in Peter’s sermon on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:16-21). They stand true for the Christian church ever since that beginning of their fulfilment, and with them stands Joel’s great assurance that God makes his home in the midst of his people and that those who turn to him will never be ashamed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book; second of the Minor Prophets.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In the first verse the contents of the book of Joel are described as the “message” of the Lord that “came to Joel, the son of Pethuel.” We are told nothing more in Scripture about Joel or Pethuel. The name Joel was common; there are 13 different Joels in the OT. From what is said in the book, it would seem that Joel was not a priest but was closely associated with the priests of the temple, and in all probability a man of Jerusalem. More than that we cannot say.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Many different views of the date of Joel have been taken by those who have studied this book carefully; thus it is difficult to be dogmatic. The book may be dated to a time after the return to Jerusalem of the Jewish exiles who had been in Babylon—more precisely, to a time after Nehemiah’s work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem (c. 400 <span>BC<\/span>). Reasons given in support of this are as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. Joel 3:2 says that the people of Judah and Jerusalem had been scattered among the nations and their land divided up, but they have been brought back, and their city once again has its walls (2:9).<\/p>\n<li>2. When a call is issued to prayer and fasting, the priests and elders are to take the lead (1:13; 2:16-17). There is no mention of a king at any point in the book. There were kings until the time of the exile, but not for 400 years after it.<\/li>\n<li>3. The preexilic prophets—Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, and Jeremiah—were often critical of the people for offering sacrifices while they departed from the ways of the Lord in their daily lives. Postexilic prophets like Haggai and Malachi offer encouragement and deep concern for the offering of sacrifices. In the preexilic prophets there was constant rebuke of the people for their worship of idols; this was not a problem with the people after the exile. In both these concerns Joel seems to fit better the postexilic than the preexilic scene.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is no reference to the northern kingdom of Israel in this book. Much is said of Judah and Jerusalem; when “Israel” is spoken of, the reference seems to be to the same people (2:27; 3:16). We would expect to find a different way of speaking before the fall of the northern kingdom to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>5. The other kingdoms referred to are Edom, Tyre and Sidon, the Philistines, and the Greeks. There is no mention of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia, the inveterate enemies from whom the people suffered so much in preexilic days. Those mentioned were certainly significant to the people in postexilic times, and only then are the Greeks of importance on the Palestinian scene.<\/li>\n<p>Some scholars think there is no great strength in these arguments and that everything in the book can be made to fit a much earlier date. It has sometimes been argued that the book is deliberately placed in the Hebrew Scriptures alongside the two eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets Hosea and Amos. But the order of the books in the prophetic canon does not determine their date. The postexilic Obadiah stands between the eighth-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets Amos and Micah, and in fact in the Greek OT Joel was placed in a different position from its place in the Hebrew Bible. Most likely Joel and Amos stand together, as Amos 1:2 has the same words found at the close of the book of Joel (Jl 3:16). Some of those who favor a preexilic date for the book place it in the ninth century, in the early period of the reign of Joash when the king was too young to actually function as ruler of the land. Others place it sometime shortly before the death of Josiah in 609 <span>BC<\/span> because of the reference to the enemy coming from the north (as in Jeremiah) and because of the appeal to the people (like Jeremiah’s appeal) to return to the Lord with all their hearts (2:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>1:1-12<\/h5>\n<p>A plague of locusts more devastating than any that past generations had experienced had come on the land (vv 2-4). Drinkers were summoned to see the grapevines devastated and the fig trees stripped (vv 5-7). People were called to mourn at the sight of fields laid waste—especially the priests, as they would no longer be able to bring cereal and drink offerings to the Lord (vv 8-10). Farmers must grieve over the ruin of their harvest, in anguish at the loss of the fruits of the land (vv 11-12).<\/p>\n<h5>1:13-20<\/h5>\n<p>Because of what had happened, the people were called to prayer and fasting; the priests were to come before the Lord in sackcloth, grieving that no offerings could be brought (v 13). Elders and people alike must come to the temple to pray (v 14). Such a time of crisis, with the crops lost and the sheep and cattle having no pasture, was to be seen as foreshadowing the great coming Day of the Lord, for which everyone should be prepared (vv 15-18). The prophet himself could only cry out to God when he saw the devastation of the land (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n\n<h5>2:1-11<\/h5>\n<p>In this section the prophet speaks of a time when God’s judgment threatens the whole land. It is a time for the alarm to be sounded, when a great and powerful “people” come up on the land, a more threatening foe than any known before. Further, it is a warning of the coming “Day of the Lord,” “a day of darkness and gloom” (vv 1-2). The land is devastated as by fire; what was like the Garden of Eden becomes a wilderness (v 3). This invasion is like that of cavalry and the sound of the insurgents like “the rumbling of chariots.” Everyone is in anguish at their advance. They march like warriors, burst through the weapons, scale the walls of the city, and come into the houses like thieves (vv 4-9).<\/p>\n<p>Some have taken this description to be a picture of armies of nations who are the foes of Israel, used by the Lord in judgment on his own people. But in that they are described as horses in battle, their noise like “the rumbling of chariots,” their advance “like a mighty army moving into battle,” it seems that the locust plague is still in mind. Yet the dark cloud of the locusts in the sky and their terrible effect on the land foreshadows the great day when the Lord will speak and act in judgment on all peoples. Then heaven and earth will tremble; sun, moon, and stars will be darkened (vv 10-11).<\/p>\n<h5>2:12-17<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet repeatedly calls the people to the Lord in humility and penitence so that his mercy and grace may be found. Then it will be possible “to offer grain and wine to the <span>Lord<\/span> your God as before” (v 14, <span>nlt<\/span>). A fast is to be appointed, a solemn assembly of young and old called. Even the newlyweds are to come. The priests must lead the people in prayer to God to spare his people (vv 14-17).<\/p>\n<h5>2:18-27<\/h5>\n<p>According to this passage, it seems that the people did turn to God as the prophet required; in response, the Lord had compassion on them and assured them of renewing their grain, wine, and oil, and removing their reproach (vv 18-19). The “armies from the north” would retreat, and God would restore the pastures of the land, its fruit trees, and its vines (vv 20-22). The people would rejoice, and with the blessing of the early and late rains the land would again be abundantly productive. The losses from the locust plague would be made good (vv 23-25). People would eat food in plenty and praise God. They would know that the one great living God was among them, and they would not be put to shame anymore (vv 26-27).<\/p>\n<h5>2:28-32<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet also saw that the blessing experienced in this renewal after the plague of locusts foreshadowed greater blessings to come, just as the judgment experienced brought the warning of the great and terrible Day of the Lord to come. God would do greater things for his people in the future; in particular, he would pour out his Spirit on men and women, young and old, slave and free (vv 28-29). There would be awe-inspiring signs in heaven and on earth (vv 30-31). All who called on the name of the Lord would know his salvation (v 32).<\/p>\n<h5>3:1-15<\/h5>\n<p>The meaning of the Day of the Lord for Israel as a nation and its significance for all nations must be realized. God’s people would find restoration by turning to him; those who had scattered them, taken their land, and sold them as slaves would come under his judgment (vv 1-3). Tyre and Sidon and the Philistines especially would have to give account for what they had done, taking the Lord’s silver and gold, removing his people from their land, and selling them as slaves to the Greeks. The sons and daughters of these slave traders would in turn be sold as slaves (vv 4-8). So the nations must be prepared for war—to melt their plowshares into swords and to beat pruning hooks into spears—but not for a battle between human armies. Those who have fought against the living God must reckon with him as a mighty warrior (vv 9-11). This mighty warrior is coming to execute judgment. The scene changes from a battleground to a court of justice; great crowds will stand before the Lord “in the valley of decision” on the Day of the Lord, which is a day of dread darkness for those who have made themselves enemies of the Almighty (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<h5>3:16-21<\/h5>\n<p>After men have spoken and done their worst, God will speak and act. He will show himself to be his people’s “refuge and strength” (v 16). Their city will then be kept from invasion by strangers (v 17). Their land will be wonderfully productive (v 18). Because of what Egypt and Edom have done in violence to Judah, they will be desolate (v 19). Israel will be avenged and restored, and to all it will be clear that the Lord’s home is in Jerusalem with his people (vv 20-21).<\/p>\n<p>This account of the contents of the book is based on the view that Joel experienced a plague of locusts in his day and that he saw this as a warning of a greater judgment of God to come. At the same time, he also spoke of a greater restoration and blessing when the people turned back to God with prayer and fasting. Others see the enemies throughout the book as human foes, at least in chapter 2. Some think of the whole book as prophetic of battles to come, and in particular of a final battle of the Lord against those who have made themselves his enemies. Some think of two prophets, or two parts of the book written at different times. But the view of the book taken above seems exposed to the fewest difficulties and makes good sense and meaning of the whole.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>What can be said finally of the abiding significance of the message of Joel? His, like that of most of the OT prophets, was a message of mercy and judgment. Such a catastrophe as a plague of locusts was a warning of God’s judgment of all men and nations, within history and ultimately at the great Day of the Lord at the consummation of history, when all will be gathered before him. The message of Joel, with its challenge to repentance arising from the events of his time, can be set alongside the words of Jesus himself when he was asked about those who had suffered in the catastrophic events of his time. When asked whether they were worse sinners than others, he answered in the negative, but with the warning, “Unless you repent, you will all of you come to the same end” (Lk 13:5, <span>neb<\/span>). The word of God through Joel called people to turn back to him to find his mercy; then to the assurance of mercy was added the hope of the greater things that God in his goodness would do. He would pour out his Spirit freely on all. These words of promise (Jl 2:28) were made more significant than any others in the book of Joel by their quotation in the NT in Peter’s sermon on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:16-21). They stand true for the Christian church ever since that beginning of their fulfilment, and with them stands Joel’s great assurance that God makes his home in the midst of his people and that those who turn to him will never be ashamed.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOEL, Book of Old Testament book; second of the Minor Prophets. Preview • Author • Date • Content • Message Author In the first verse the contents of the book of Joel are described as the “message” of the Lord that “came to Joel, the son of Pethuel.” We are told nothing more in Scripture about Joel or Pethuel. The name Joel was common; there are 13 different Joels in the OT. From what is said in the book, it would seem that Joel was not a priest but was closely associated with the priests of ...","summary_en":"JOEL, Book of Old Testament book; second of the Minor Prophets. Preview • Author • Date • Content • Message Author In the first verse the contents of the book of Joel are described as the “message” of the Lord that “came to Joel, the son of Pethuel.” We are told nothing more in Scripture about Joel or Pethuel. The name Joel was common; there are 13 different Joels in the OT. From what is said in the book, it would seem that Joel was not a priest but was closely associated with the priests of ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39385,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","summary_en":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53876,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","summary_en":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81502,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","summary_en":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109128,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","summary_en":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136754,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:2<\/strong> This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount <em>Zion<\/em> (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>. • <em>Mount Carmel<\/em> rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all <em>the grass on Mount Carmel<\/em> withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","summary_en":"1:2 This message speaks of judgment at the day of the Lord. • Mount Zion (the Temple in Jerusalem) was the logical source of a message from the Lord. • Mount Carmel rises from the Mediterranean Sea and is well watered even in time of drought. If all the grass on Mount Carmel withered, it would be the sign of a catastrophic drought.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62967,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64663,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem","title_en":"Worship in Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","summary_en":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90593,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92289,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem","title_en":"Worship in Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","summary_en":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118219,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119915,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem","title_en":"Worship in Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","summary_en":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145845,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147541,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem","title_en":"Worship in Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Worship in Jerusalem<\/h3>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the north, Jeroboam, established alternative worship centers and discouraged his people from going to Jerusalem to worship. Over time, various worship sites were constructed—in the north and the south. But no matter how many sacrifices were offered or how elaborate the rituals performed there (5:4-5), these were not the places for worship God had chosen.<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, worship is no longer tied to a particular location; worship may occur wherever believers choose to gather (see Matt 18:20). But it must be conducted as God directs: “in spirit and in truth” (John 4:23-24). In both the Old and New Testaments, an emphasis is placed upon the authenticity of worship.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 12:5; 1 Kgs 11:36; 2 Chr 6:6; Neh 1:9; 11:1; Isa 2:3; 52:1; 56:7; Joel 3:17; Amos 5:4-5; Zech 8:20-22; Matt 4:5; Luke 19:46; John 2:16; 4:21-24; Heb 12:18-29; Rev 21:2, 10; 22:19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","summary_en":"Worship in Jerusalem The Old Testament prophets realized that genuine worship depends on a proper understanding of God and his requirements. God had determined that the Temple in Jerusalem would be the central location of worship for his people. The Lord roared from Zion and thundered from Jerusalem (1:2). It was unacceptable for the Israelites to set up a central worship site in any place other than his authorized Temple in Jerusalem. But after the Israelite kingdom divided, the king of the ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":41605,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69231,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96857,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124483,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1458,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8471,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Damascus","title_en":"Damascus","content_ro":"<h3>DAMASCUS<\/h3>\n<p>Syrian oasis city protected on three sides by mountains and situated on trade routes about 160 miles (257 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. The name Damascus can also refer to the surrounding area and to the southern Syrian state. Though close to the desert, the district is rich in almonds, apricots, cotton, flax, grains, hemp, olives, pistachios, pomegranates, tobacco, vineyards, and walnuts. These crops grow well because the land is watered by two rivers: the Nahr Barada, “the Cool” (biblical Abana), which runs from the northwest mountains through a deep ravine to the city; and the Nahr el-A waj, “the Crooked” (biblical Pharpar), which flows west to east. Together the two rivers irrigate 400 square miles (643.6 square kilometers) of land. Their beauty and importance in biblical times is conveyed by the haughty words of Naaman, a resident of the area, who almost refused to wash his leprosy away in the Jordan, as Elisha had prescribed, because it was such a poor river in comparison with the Abana and Pharpar (2 Kgs 5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Of the several trade routes that converged in the area, one led to Tyre and down the Mediterranean coastline, another to Megiddo and eventually to Memphis and Egypt, and a third to the Gulf of Aqaba.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical mention of Damascus (Gn 14:15) refers to the city in connection with Abraham’s successful attack upon the confederation of kings who kidnapped Lot and his family. The Bible does not refer to the city again until the time of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Israel occupied a strategic position along the trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although in the time of Joshua and the judges Israel was in conflict with its immediate neighbors, the Amorites, Moabites, Philistines, Ammonites, and Midianites, there was relatively little opposition from Syria.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of Saul, Zobah, an Aramean kingdom to the north of Damascus, was menacing the Israelites. Damascus was possibly in alliance with Zobah at this time, and the Israelites fought a defensive action (1 Sm 14:47). David subsequently defeated Hadadezer of Zobah and gained control over southern Syria and Damascus, where he garrisoned his troops. David’s forces under Joab continued to be successful, and tribute was sent from Damascus to Israel. One of Hadadezer’s officers, Rezon, deserted and formed a guerilla band in the Damascus area. Subsequently, in Solomon’s reign he eroded even the Israelites’ economic control of the region and set himself up as king in Damascus around 940 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 11:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>In the reign of Ben-hadad I, about 883–843 <span>BC<\/span>, soldiers from Damascus besieged Samaria and sent reasonable terms to Ahab, which were accepted swiftly. Damascus was at the height of its power when Ben-hadad was campaigning successfully against the Assyrians. At this time, when Jehoram, Ahab’s son, was king of Israel, Naaman the leper, a Syrian captain, was healed by the prophet Elisha when he accepted humbly the prescribed cure.<\/p>\n<p>The strategy of overcoming the kingdom by killing the king had been successful for Ben-hadad in his fight with Ahab, and he continued to follow the same policy. Shortly afterward, in a further effort to subdue Samaria, he sent assassination squads to murder either Jehoram or the prophet Elisha. The Lord preserved the lives of the pursued, and the Syrian attacked without success. Several years later, Elisha, who had gained the respect of the Syrians, entered Damascus boldly and announced that Ben-hadad’s illness was not fatal but that his death was imminent. Ben-hadad was thereafter murdered by Hazael, who then succeeded him. Although Damascus was soundly defeated by Assyria about 838 <span>BC<\/span>, Hazael rebounded quickly, and by 830 <span>BC<\/span> other predictions of Elisha were fulfilled. Damascene troops then controlled large areas of Palestinian territory, and the temple treasure was used to bribe the Syrians and save Jerusalem (2 Kgs 12:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Planning to continue the subjection of Israel, Ben-hadad II found himself having to contend instead with resumed attacks from Assyria. In 803 <span>BC<\/span> Damascus became a tributary of Assyria, but the northern forces were unable to hold the area. After a further campaign in which Assyria again proved dominant, a weakened Damascus was unable to quash an Israelite rebellion in 795 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of Jeroboam II, the Damascenes were forced to pay tribute to Samaria (2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>About 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Syrians, led by their new leader Rezin, joined forces with Pekah, king of Israel, to subjugate Judah. Much land was captured, although their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5-6; 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the city’s doom was predicted by Isaiah (Is 8:4; 17:1), Amos (Am 1:3-5), and Jeremiah (Jer 49:23-27). Rejecting God, Ahaz of Judah turned for protection to an alliance with the Assyrians, whom he bribed with the temple treasure. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (“Pul”) agreed and marched against the Syro-Israelite confederation. After defeating Israel, he attacked Damascus, plundered the city, deported the population, and replaced them with foreigners from other captured lands. Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>Due to its key location, Damascus remained important, and the Assyrians used the city as a provincial capital. Their records mention it in 727, 720, and 694 <span>BC<\/span>, and also in the days of Ashurbanipal (669–663 <span>BC<\/span>). Assyrian world dominance succumbed to that of Neo-Babylon, which was later replaced by that of Medo-Persia. During the period of Persian control, Damascus was a noted administrative center. Under the regime of Alexander the Great, the importance of Damascus was diminished by the rise in commercial significance of Antioch.<\/p>\n<p>During intertestamental times, Damascus passed from one ruler to another. Following the death of Alexander, the city was controlled by the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Babylon. Somewhat before 100 <span>BC<\/span>, Syria was divided, with Damascus becoming the capital of Coele-Syria. Its non-Syrian kings were constantly in trouble at home with the economy and abroad with the Parthians, Hasmoneans, and Nabateans, who under Aretas controlled Damascus from 84 to 72 <span>BC<\/span>. Subsequently, authority passed to the Hasmoneans, descendants of the Maccabees, and then the Idumeans (the Herods). The area was subjected to Roman dominance after the defeat of Syria by the Romans in 65 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after the death of Christ, the Nabateans regained control of the area, ruling Damascus from Petra through an ethnarch. It was under the control of an Arab appointee, probably Aretas IV, when Saul of Tarsus sought Jewish authority to purge Damascus of its Christians (2 Cor 11:32). Luke’s report in Acts 9, corroborated by Paul’s own confession (Acts 22:5-21; 26:11-23), relates Saul’s vision, blinding, and subsequent conversion on the road to Damascus. This may have been close to the place where Syrian soldiers were blinded when planning to assassinate Elisha (2 Kgs 6:18-23). After Saul’s sight was restored in a house on the street called “Straight,” he preached Christianity. Apparently the uproar in the Jewish quarter concerning his preaching was so great that the ethnarch was willing to condone Saul’s murder by orthodox Jews. Acts 9:23-25 describes his escape to Jerusalem. Damascus is not mentioned thereafter in biblical history.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAMASCUS<\/h3>\n<p>Syrian oasis city protected on three sides by mountains and situated on trade routes about 160 miles (257 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. The name Damascus can also refer to the surrounding area and to the southern Syrian state. Though close to the desert, the district is rich in almonds, apricots, cotton, flax, grains, hemp, olives, pistachios, pomegranates, tobacco, vineyards, and walnuts. These crops grow well because the land is watered by two rivers: the Nahr Barada, “the Cool” (biblical Abana), which runs from the northwest mountains through a deep ravine to the city; and the Nahr el-A waj, “the Crooked” (biblical Pharpar), which flows west to east. Together the two rivers irrigate 400 square miles (643.6 square kilometers) of land. Their beauty and importance in biblical times is conveyed by the haughty words of Naaman, a resident of the area, who almost refused to wash his leprosy away in the Jordan, as Elisha had prescribed, because it was such a poor river in comparison with the Abana and Pharpar (2 Kgs 5).<\/p>\n\n<p>Of the several trade routes that converged in the area, one led to Tyre and down the Mediterranean coastline, another to Megiddo and eventually to Memphis and Egypt, and a third to the Gulf of Aqaba.<\/p>\n<p>The first biblical mention of Damascus (Gn 14:15) refers to the city in connection with Abraham’s successful attack upon the confederation of kings who kidnapped Lot and his family. The Bible does not refer to the city again until the time of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Israel occupied a strategic position along the trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although in the time of Joshua and the judges Israel was in conflict with its immediate neighbors, the Amorites, Moabites, Philistines, Ammonites, and Midianites, there was relatively little opposition from Syria.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of Saul, Zobah, an Aramean kingdom to the north of Damascus, was menacing the Israelites. Damascus was possibly in alliance with Zobah at this time, and the Israelites fought a defensive action (1 Sm 14:47). David subsequently defeated Hadadezer of Zobah and gained control over southern Syria and Damascus, where he garrisoned his troops. David’s forces under Joab continued to be successful, and tribute was sent from Damascus to Israel. One of Hadadezer’s officers, Rezon, deserted and formed a guerilla band in the Damascus area. Subsequently, in Solomon’s reign he eroded even the Israelites’ economic control of the region and set himself up as king in Damascus around 940 <span>BC<\/span> (1 Kgs 11:23-25).<\/p>\n<p>In the reign of Ben-hadad I, about 883–843 <span>BC<\/span>, soldiers from Damascus besieged Samaria and sent reasonable terms to Ahab, which were accepted swiftly. Damascus was at the height of its power when Ben-hadad was campaigning successfully against the Assyrians. At this time, when Jehoram, Ahab’s son, was king of Israel, Naaman the leper, a Syrian captain, was healed by the prophet Elisha when he accepted humbly the prescribed cure.<\/p>\n<p>The strategy of overcoming the kingdom by killing the king had been successful for Ben-hadad in his fight with Ahab, and he continued to follow the same policy. Shortly afterward, in a further effort to subdue Samaria, he sent assassination squads to murder either Jehoram or the prophet Elisha. The Lord preserved the lives of the pursued, and the Syrian attacked without success. Several years later, Elisha, who had gained the respect of the Syrians, entered Damascus boldly and announced that Ben-hadad’s illness was not fatal but that his death was imminent. Ben-hadad was thereafter murdered by Hazael, who then succeeded him. Although Damascus was soundly defeated by Assyria about 838 <span>BC<\/span>, Hazael rebounded quickly, and by 830 <span>BC<\/span> other predictions of Elisha were fulfilled. Damascene troops then controlled large areas of Palestinian territory, and the temple treasure was used to bribe the Syrians and save Jerusalem (2 Kgs 12:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>Planning to continue the subjection of Israel, Ben-hadad II found himself having to contend instead with resumed attacks from Assyria. In 803 <span>BC<\/span> Damascus became a tributary of Assyria, but the northern forces were unable to hold the area. After a further campaign in which Assyria again proved dominant, a weakened Damascus was unable to quash an Israelite rebellion in 795 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of Jeroboam II, the Damascenes were forced to pay tribute to Samaria (2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>About 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Syrians, led by their new leader Rezin, joined forces with Pekah, king of Israel, to subjugate Judah. Much land was captured, although their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5-6; 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the city’s doom was predicted by Isaiah (Is 8:4; 17:1), Amos (Am 1:3-5), and Jeremiah (Jer 49:23-27). Rejecting God, Ahaz of Judah turned for protection to an alliance with the Assyrians, whom he bribed with the temple treasure. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (“Pul”) agreed and marched against the Syro-Israelite confederation. After defeating Israel, he attacked Damascus, plundered the city, deported the population, and replaced them with foreigners from other captured lands. Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>Due to its key location, Damascus remained important, and the Assyrians used the city as a provincial capital. Their records mention it in 727, 720, and 694 <span>BC<\/span>, and also in the days of Ashurbanipal (669–663 <span>BC<\/span>). Assyrian world dominance succumbed to that of Neo-Babylon, which was later replaced by that of Medo-Persia. During the period of Persian control, Damascus was a noted administrative center. Under the regime of Alexander the Great, the importance of Damascus was diminished by the rise in commercial significance of Antioch.<\/p>\n<p>During intertestamental times, Damascus passed from one ruler to another. Following the death of Alexander, the city was controlled by the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Babylon. Somewhat before 100 <span>BC<\/span>, Syria was divided, with Damascus becoming the capital of Coele-Syria. Its non-Syrian kings were constantly in trouble at home with the economy and abroad with the Parthians, Hasmoneans, and Nabateans, who under Aretas controlled Damascus from 84 to 72 <span>BC<\/span>. Subsequently, authority passed to the Hasmoneans, descendants of the Maccabees, and then the Idumeans (the Herods). The area was subjected to Roman dominance after the defeat of Syria by the Romans in 65 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after the death of Christ, the Nabateans regained control of the area, ruling Damascus from Petra through an ethnarch. It was under the control of an Arab appointee, probably Aretas IV, when Saul of Tarsus sought Jewish authority to purge Damascus of its Christians (2 Cor 11:32). Luke’s report in Acts 9, corroborated by Paul’s own confession (Acts 22:5-21; 26:11-23), relates Saul’s vision, blinding, and subsequent conversion on the road to Damascus. This may have been close to the place where Syrian soldiers were blinded when planning to assassinate Elisha (2 Kgs 6:18-23). After Saul’s sight was restored in a house on the street called “Straight,” he preached Christianity. Apparently the uproar in the Jewish quarter concerning his preaching was so great that the ethnarch was willing to condone Saul’s murder by orthodox Jews. Acts 9:23-25 describes his escape to Jerusalem. Damascus is not mentioned thereafter in biblical history.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAMASCUS Syrian oasis city protected on three sides by mountains and situated on trade routes about 160 miles (257 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. The name Damascus can also refer to the surrounding area and to the southern Syrian state. Though close to the desert, the district is rich in almonds, apricots, cotton, flax, grains, hemp, olives, pistachios, pomegranates, tobacco, vineyards, and walnuts. These crops grow well because the land is watered by two rivers: the Nahr Barada, “the Co...","summary_en":"DAMASCUS Syrian oasis city protected on three sides by mountains and situated on trade routes about 160 miles (257 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. The name Damascus can also refer to the surrounding area and to the southern Syrian state. Though close to the desert, the district is rich in almonds, apricots, cotton, flax, grains, hemp, olives, pistachios, pomegranates, tobacco, vineyards, and walnuts. These crops grow well because the land is watered by two rivers: the Nahr Barada, “the Co...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13872,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gilead (Place)","title_en":"Gilead (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>GILEAD (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region east of the Jordan River. Generally used to designate the territory occupied by all the Transjordanian Israelite tribes (Jgs 20:1; 2 Kgs 10:33; Jer 50:19; Zec 10:10). Specifically, Gilead is the area of the Transjordan lying between the Yarmuk and Arnon Rivers and divided by the Jabbok River.<\/li>\n<p>The so-called Dome of Gilead is an extension of the central hill country of Judah, rising to heights of more than 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above the Jordan Valley. The valleys and hills were well watered by numerous rivers and tributaries, making flatter portions of the countryside well suited for agriculture, especially olive trees, grapevines, and grains (cf. Jer 8:22; 46:11; Hos 2:8). The densely forested and rugged hills were sometimes compared to those of Lebanon (Jer 22:6; Zec 10:10) and made the land a refuge for those in flight, since the terrain prohibited ready pursuit by enemies (cf. Gn 31:21; 1 Sm 13:7).<\/p>\n<p>Originally the region of Gilead was allotted to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh (Nm 32). The period of the judges saw Israelite security there assailed by the Midianites and Amalekites, only to be checked by the military exploits of Gideon (Jgs 6–7). Half a century later, Jephthah was recalled from his banishment to rescue Gilead from oppressive Ammonite rule (chs 10–11). During the united monarchy, Saul delivered Jabesh-gilead from Ammonite dominance (1 Sm 11:1-11; 31:8-13; 2 Sm 2:1-7). Abner installed Ish-bosheth as a rival to David in Gilead (2 Sm 2:8-9). David conquered the Ammonites controlling Gilead as he extended the borders of Israel (8:11-12; 10:1-19). He fled there for refuge in the face of Absalom’s rebellion (chs 15–17) and was finally restored to the throne when Absalom was slain in the forest of Ephraim (chs 18–19). Gilead remained a battleground during the divided monarchy, as first the Israelites warred with the Syrians (Arameans; 1 Kgs 20:23-43; 22:1-4, 29-40; 2 Kgs 13:22; Am 1:3) and then with the Assyrians, who wrested the territory from Pekah in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and deported the Israelite population, thus severing Gilead’s tie to the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 15:27-31).<\/p>\n<li>2. A city condemned for its evil (Hos 6:8), possibly an abbreviated name for Jabesh-gilead or Ramoth-gilead. This may be the same Gilead that was identified with Mizpah #5. (cf. Jgs 10:17-18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GILEAD (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Region east of the Jordan River. Generally used to designate the territory occupied by all the Transjordanian Israelite tribes (Jgs 20:1; 2 Kgs 10:33; Jer 50:19; Zec 10:10). Specifically, Gilead is the area of the Transjordan lying between the Yarmuk and Arnon Rivers and divided by the Jabbok River.<\/li>\n<p>The so-called Dome of Gilead is an extension of the central hill country of Judah, rising to heights of more than 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above the Jordan Valley. The valleys and hills were well watered by numerous rivers and tributaries, making flatter portions of the countryside well suited for agriculture, especially olive trees, grapevines, and grains (cf. Jer 8:22; 46:11; Hos 2:8). The densely forested and rugged hills were sometimes compared to those of Lebanon (Jer 22:6; Zec 10:10) and made the land a refuge for those in flight, since the terrain prohibited ready pursuit by enemies (cf. Gn 31:21; 1 Sm 13:7).<\/p>\n<p>Originally the region of Gilead was allotted to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh (Nm 32). The period of the judges saw Israelite security there assailed by the Midianites and Amalekites, only to be checked by the military exploits of Gideon (Jgs 6–7). Half a century later, Jephthah was recalled from his banishment to rescue Gilead from oppressive Ammonite rule (chs 10–11). During the united monarchy, Saul delivered Jabesh-gilead from Ammonite dominance (1 Sm 11:1-11; 31:8-13; 2 Sm 2:1-7). Abner installed Ish-bosheth as a rival to David in Gilead (2 Sm 2:8-9). David conquered the Ammonites controlling Gilead as he extended the borders of Israel (8:11-12; 10:1-19). He fled there for refuge in the face of Absalom’s rebellion (chs 15–17) and was finally restored to the throne when Absalom was slain in the forest of Ephraim (chs 18–19). Gilead remained a battleground during the divided monarchy, as first the Israelites warred with the Syrians (Arameans; 1 Kgs 20:23-43; 22:1-4, 29-40; 2 Kgs 13:22; Am 1:3) and then with the Assyrians, who wrested the territory from Pekah in 733 <span>BC<\/span> and deported the Israelite population, thus severing Gilead’s tie to the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 15:27-31).<\/p>\n<li>2. A city condemned for its evil (Hos 6:8), possibly an abbreviated name for Jabesh-gilead or Ramoth-gilead. This may be the same Gilead that was identified with Mizpah #5. (cf. Jgs 10:17-18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GILEAD (Place) 1. Region east of the Jordan River. Generally used to designate the territory occupied by all the Transjordanian Israelite tribes (Jgs 20:1; 2 Kgs 10:33; Jer 50:19; Zec 10:10). Specifically, Gilead is the area of the Transjordan lying between the Yarmuk and Arnon Rivers and divided by the Jabbok River. The so-called Dome of Gilead is an extension of the central hill country of Judah, rising to heights of more than 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above the Jordan Valley. The valleys a...","summary_en":"GILEAD (Place) 1. Region east of the Jordan River. Generally used to designate the territory occupied by all the Transjordanian Israelite tribes (Jgs 20:1; 2 Kgs 10:33; Jer 50:19; Zec 10:10). Specifically, Gilead is the area of the Transjordan lying between the Yarmuk and Arnon Rivers and divided by the Jabbok River. The so-called Dome of Gilead is an extension of the central hill country of Judah, rising to heights of more than 3,000 feet (914.4 meters) above the Jordan Valley. The valleys a...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19093,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Jeremiah","title_en":"Book of Jeremiah","content_ro":"<h3>JEREMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n\n<p>OT prophetic book, second in the canonical order of the Prophets.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Outline and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Few doubt that the prophet from Anathoth wrote the book of Jeremiah, yet questions persist concerning some parts, particularly chapter 52. The use of the third person cannot be used to discredit Jeremiah’s authorship, for Jeremiah used the first and third person, and even the second person, in the same context. For example, 32:6-7 reads: “Jeremiah said [third person], ‘The word of the <span>Lord<\/span> came to me: [first person] . . . your uncle will come to you [second person]’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of the passage of time provides the strongest argument against the Jeremian authorship of chapter 52. Jeremiah was born about 657 <span>BC<\/span>. Evil-merodoch released Jehoiachin (52:31) about 95 years later. Jeremiah 52:33 summarizes the continuation of events beyond this time. The problem of location also argues against Jeremian authorship, for Jeremiah took up residence in Egypt (43:6-7) while Jehoiachin dwelt in Babylon. Note also that Jeremiah concludes his writing with chapter 51, making chapter 52 a true editorial appendix. Since chapter 52 parallels 2 Kings 24:18–25:30, it may be that other portions of Jeremiah that parallel sections of 2 Kings may have been written by someone other than Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>The following table shows such portions and includes harmonic passages in 2 Chronicles. The first column shows historical (chronological) sequence. The last column provides a brief condensation of content.<\/p>\n<p>Baruch served as the secretary for Jeremiah. The relationship between the two men apparently lasted many years; the prophet gave a word of encouragement as he blessed his helper (45:5). According to the custom of the people, it would have been legitimate for the scribe to write some of the prophet’s messages in his own words. This would not deny inspiration.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>That Jeremiah lived and actually wrote the major part of the book bearing his name is authenticated by numerous references in both biblical and nonbiblical sources (e.g., Dn 9; Ecclus 49; Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 10; Talmud: <em>Baba Bathra<\/em>). The veracity of the historical sections of Jeremiah have abundant confirmation in contemporary biblical books and in the secular histories preserved in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia.<\/p>\n<p>Higher critics sought to discredit the portions of Jeremiah that were omitted by the Septuagint, or to credit passages to a later writer because of style differences (e.g., chs 30–33) or spelling differences (as found in chs 27–29) or linguistic problems (as in 10:11, written in Aramaic, but this may be a gloss). Another reason for discrediting Jeremiah’s authorship is that critics dated some prophecies later than indicated in the context. This results from their requiring that predictive writing follow the record of its fulfillment. None of these reasons is sufficient cause for doubting authenticity. The Hebrew text deserves priority over the Septuagint. Aramaic contact with the Jews became commonplace during this period (cf. Ezr 4–7; Dn 2–7) and therefore explains the presence of Aramaic. Different styles may be expected from the same writer due to differing circumstances and differing purposes. Baruch may have been inspired to write parts of this book and\/or edited what Jeremiah wrote. Prediction preceding fulfillment presents no problem for believers.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBookofJeremiahandtheSeptuagint\">The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>The special problems of the Septuagint translation of Jeremiah demand attention. The Septuagint translators evidently made an inaccurate translation. About 2,300 Hebrew words are omitted from the Septuagint. After chapter 23, the mistranslation, omissions, and mixed chronological order indicate confusion. However, the Dead Sea Scrolls display texts with both the Hebrew and the Septuagint order, indicating the antiquity of both editions. Both have suffered corruption at the hands of scribes and the ravages of the ages. The Septuagint evidently veers much further from the original, yet it has invaluable clues to help suggest answers to some textual problems. The most evident major shift in the Septuagint consists of the removal of chapters 46–51 of the Hebrew order, and the placement of them in the spot from which 25:13b-14 was removed. These chapters are renumbered 26–31 but are mixed and changed considerably from the order of the Hebrew Masoretic Text.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>This is fully discussed in the previous entry. <em>See<\/em> Jeremiah (Person) #1.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The chronological sequence of the messages of Jeremiah constitutes a major problem that cannot be wholly solved. Nonetheless, the book was written during Jeremiah’s ministry (c. 627–586 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>After beginning his ministry in Anathoth, Jeremiah moved to Jerusalem, where he remained until he was forced to join the disobedient refugees who arrived in Egypt about 584 <span>BC<\/span>. Until the deportation of Jehoiachin (597 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah addressed his messages to the king and the people residing in Judah. Later messages addressed the same group, plus the captives in Babylon (e.g., ch 29). After the departure to Egypt, he addressed Jews in that land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Part of God’s commission to Jeremiah stated the purpose of Jeremiah’s ministry: “Today I appoint you to stand up against nations and kingdoms. You are to uproot some and tear them down, to destroy and overthrow them. You are to build others up and plant them” (1:10, <span>nlt<\/span>). The first four parts of the commission required that Jeremiah, appointed as a “chief governor” over nations, should wreck the existing religious and social structures by his preaching against moral and spiritual sin. Doubtless, the physical destruction caused by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians was the accoutrement for the truth uttered by the prophet. Jeremiah is consistent in his blasts at moral and religious wickedness, his call to submit to the punishment that God gives through Babylon, and his assurance that such submission will lead to blessing. When Zedekiah asks advice (38:14), we know what Jeremiah will say. When the captains of the refugees ask if they should go to Egypt, we already know the answer (42:3). We may also anticipate the obdurate rejection of God’s message on the part of the inquiring people, who apparently want to know God’s will but have no desire to obey it.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, part of Jeremiah’s purpose focuses on the most distant future when the new covenant will supplant the old (31:31-37), and a transformed people bent on obedience rather than sin will receive God’s promised kingdom.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Teaching\">Teaching<\/p>\n<p>National sin brings national punishment. No truth blazes so clearly as this. Gentiles as well as Jews stand under the same judgment, for God is not the God of Israel only.<\/p>\n<p>Individuals are not overlooked in divine judgments on nations. God sets before each the way of life and the way of death (21:8) and appeals to each to choose life (27:13).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah illustrates human depravity by questioning if people can change their skin color or leopards their spots (13:23). The depths of depravity reach beyond man’s ability to measure (17:9-10). People even love falsehood (5:30-31). Yet God promises to transform willing subjects who call on him (33:3) by giving them a “new heart” (24:7; 32:38-41) as the climatic provision of the new covenant (31:33-35). The Messiah, who accomplishes the saving work, is called the Lord our Righteousness, the King, the righteous Branch, the Branch of David (23:5-6; 33:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>A future nation will be made up of individuals who accept this salvation. Passing through the night of tribulation as of travail (30:6-7), the Jews will understand the true identity of their Messiah, will believe and receive him with repentant sorrow, will be cleansed (33:8), and will be regathered from all countries (32:37) by the omnipotent God (v 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OutlineandContent\">Outline and Content<\/p>\n<p>Though many see no logical order, a careful reading of Jeremiah will reveal a grouping on the basis of content, as suggested by the following outline:<\/p>\n<li> I. Introduction (1)<\/li>\n<li> II. Oracles against the Jews (2–25)<\/li>\n<li>III. History—Signs and Sufferings of Jeremiah before the Siege (26–29)<\/li>\n<li> IV. The Book of Hope written during the Siege (30–33)<\/li>\n<li> V. History—Signs and Sufferings of Jeremiah after the Siege (34–45)<\/li>\n<li> VI. Oracles against the Nations (46–51)<\/li>\n<li>VII. Conclusion (52)<\/li>\n<p>The prophet opens his ministry with a series of utterances against the sins of Jerusalem (2:1–3:5), followed by similar messages (through ch 4), concluding with words of judgment (chs 5–6). The message in the temple gate (chs 7–10) leads into the proclamation against covenant breakers (chs 11–13). The lamentation over the drought (ch 14) and subsequent miseries (ch 15) compares with many similar expressions of grief. Jeremiah did not differ from other prophets in his use of object lessons. The rotted linen waistband (ch 13), the broken jug (ch 19), figs (ch 24), and ox yoke (chs 27–28) may be supplemented by human object lessons (ch 35), and even the prophet himself, whose celibacy (16:1-4), resistance to sympathetic consolation (16:5-7), and withdrawal from feasts (16:8-9) all served to illustrate and confirm his message.<\/p>\n<p>Places where Jeremiah proclaimed his messages helped bear home his point. He stood in the public gate, where kings came and went, to proclaim that judgment (fire) would come through the gate (17:19, 27; 39:3). Then he went to the potter’s house (ch 18), and then to Hinnom or Topath, which would be called the Valley of Slaughter (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>The persecution suffered by Jeremiah first hinted at (1:8), then predicted (v 19), expresses its venom privately from his home village (11:19-23). The prophet’s kindred join the opposition (12:6). Public opposition brings beatings and the stocks (20:2-3). Jeremiah prefers to keep silent rather than to speak and suffer (v 9), but he cannot withhold the word that is as fire in his bones. The result: all his familiars reproached, derided, terrorized, and denounced him, then sought his death (vv 7-18). Jeremiah escaped death at the hands of priests, prophets, and people only because he had a few faithful friends (26:8-24). When his prophecies began to materialize, hatred mounted. He was beaten and put into a dungeon for many days (37:14-17) on a false charge. Temporary relief at the guardhouse (v 21) lasted only a few days. Officials clamored again for his death (38:4) and put him into a cistern, where he sank in the mire (v 6). His rescue (v 10) preserved his life, but his imprisonment at the guardhouse continued (v 28). His writings were cut up and burned (36:23); his words were denied and rejected (43:1-7; 44:16).<\/p>\n<p>The “Book of Hope“ (chs 30–33) does contain some words of judgment (32:28-35), and other sections of the prophecy have a few bright spots (3:11-18; 16:14-16; 23:2-8; 29:10-14), but in a volume otherwise dark, these four chapters bring pleasant relief. The climax of hope, as indicated also in the longest NT quotation from Jeremiah (see Heb 8:8-12), predicts a new covenant (31:31-40). Other prophecies also describe the end of the Mosaic law and sacrament (e.g., 3:16), and the new covenant (32:40; 33:19-26).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of Jeremiah’s activity or messages from c. 594–589 <span>BC<\/span>. Zedekiah’s counselors made clandestine plans for throwing off Babylon’s yoke by alliances with neighbor nations. A traitor may have reported the conspiracy to Babylon (perhaps Edom). After Babylon attacked, Zedekiah sought a hopeful report from Jeremiah but did not get it.<\/p>\n<p>The Recabite faithfulness to the Nazarite vow (ch 35) dates to the days of Jehoiakim but as an object lesson fits the siege context. Recabites received a human command that they obeyed; Jews received a divine command that they rejected. Recabites will be blessed (35:18-19); Judah, judged (vv 15-17). The reading of the scroll to Jehoiakim and his scornful rejection of it (ch 36) illustrates the prophetic assertion (35:15) that destruction follows the rejection of God’s message given through the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>The siege comes into focus in chapter 37 with another inquiry from Zedekiah (the nonchronological chs 35–36 serve as an illustrative parenthesis). Jeremiah 37:11 moves forward to the time of the lifting of the siege of 589 <span>BC<\/span> when Nebuchadnezzar drove Pharaoh Hophra’s army back to Egypt. During the reprieve, Jeremiah sought to attend a meeting of relatives to settle family matters at or near Anathoth. Perhaps the trip involved initiating the purchase that would be made two years later (32:6-15). However, as he was leaving the city, he was arrested for desertion to the Babylonians and jailed in a dungeon cell until Zedekiah granted him privileged prisoner status.<\/p>\n<p>The king’s officers had ample cause for the accusation of sedition: Jeremiah had encouraged desertion (21:9; 38:2). Traitors deserved death, and this was their verdict against Jeremiah (38:4-5). The violence of the time encouraged the officers to select a cruel method of execution: let Jeremiah starve and bury himself in the mire at the bottom of an abandoned cistern. A sympathetic Ethiopian, Ebed-melech, made the rescue. Immediately, the unadulterated prophecies of judgment came forth again from Jeremiah’s lips, including a message to the king that reflected Jeremiah’s own recent experience: “[Your friends] have betrayed and misled you. When your feet sank in the mud, they left you to your fate” (38:22, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 39:1–43:7 records history from the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span> to the flight into Egypt, including the liberation of Jeremiah (ch 39), appointment and assassination of Gedaliah (chs 40–41), a warning from God against going to Egypt (ch 42), and the obdurate disobedience of the people (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The latest writings of Jeremiah are found in chapter 44. The audience consisted of idolatrous Jews (44:4-6) gathered from various parts of Egypt as far as Aswan (Pathros). Jeremiah repeated the appeal of former prophets to reject false gods in favor of Jehovah, but to no avail (44:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>The message to Baruch (ch 45), written about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, is placed here to round out the main part of the book, which begins with the commission to “break down” and “pluck up” (1:10) and concludes with the same Hebrew words (45:4). If Baruch had ambition to obtain status in the Judean court like his brother Seraiah (51:59), he was advised that it would be useless because disaster would come, as the preceding chapters indicate.<\/p>\n<p>The oracles against the nations (46–51), introduced by a title superscription (46:1), constitute a distinct stylistic division similar to Isaiah 13–23, Ezekiel 25–32, and Amos 1:3–2:16.<\/p>\n<p>Some of the prophecies against foreign nations in Jeremiah carry dates that show that they were written at different points during his ministry but were collected together for the book.<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy against Egypt opens with a colorful description of Egypt’s expulsion from Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>) after a short occupancy (Jer 46:1-12). The second message (vv 13-26) may picture the attack on Egypt in 601 <span>BC<\/span> when Neco stopped Nebuchadnezzar at the border; the attack in 589 <span>BC<\/span> when Hophra lost in his attempt to aid Zedekiah; or (most probably) the invasion of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar in 568 <span>BC<\/span>, when Babylon took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to occupy it. At that time Nebuchadnezzar set up his judgment throne as predicted (43:10) and meted out death sentences to all rebels, including those Jews who might have been implicated in anti-Babylonian conspiracies. The conclusion of the Egypt oracle repeats part of the Book of Hope (46:27-28, cf. 30:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Messages against Edom, Arabia, Phoenician cities, and Ammon generally condemn pride, cruelty, and idolatry. The oracle against Elam is unique. No other prophet speaks judgment against this people, whose dwelling east of Babylon meant rare contact with Judah. Jeremiah predicted that Elam would be doomed, then restored. Ezekiel counts Elamites among the inhabitants of Sheol (Ez 32:24).<\/p>\n<p>The final judgment indicates the unbiased attitude of the prophet. His messages placed him in an advantageous position with the Babylonians, who treated him with respect and kindness, in contrast to their cruelty to other Jews. But when God spoke against Babylon, Jeremiah uttered God’s words without respect to his own comfort, just as he had spoken against Egypt when silence would have been logical for self-preservation.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 51 concludes “the words of Jeremiah.”<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 52 repeats historical facts previously stated prophetically by Jeremiah, and partially recorded also as history in chapter 39 (cf. 2 Kgs 25 and 2 Chr 36). The editor of Jeremiah evidently desired to climax the book with a historical confirmation of Jeremiah’s prophecy, but he included facts beyond those contained elsewhere.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jeremiah (Person) #1; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEREMIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n\n<p>OT prophetic book, second in the canonical order of the Prophets.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Outline and Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Few doubt that the prophet from Anathoth wrote the book of Jeremiah, yet questions persist concerning some parts, particularly chapter 52. The use of the third person cannot be used to discredit Jeremiah’s authorship, for Jeremiah used the first and third person, and even the second person, in the same context. For example, 32:6-7 reads: “Jeremiah said [third person], ‘The word of the <span>Lord<\/span> came to me: [first person] . . . your uncle will come to you [second person]’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of the passage of time provides the strongest argument against the Jeremian authorship of chapter 52. Jeremiah was born about 657 <span>BC<\/span>. Evil-merodoch released Jehoiachin (52:31) about 95 years later. Jeremiah 52:33 summarizes the continuation of events beyond this time. The problem of location also argues against Jeremian authorship, for Jeremiah took up residence in Egypt (43:6-7) while Jehoiachin dwelt in Babylon. Note also that Jeremiah concludes his writing with chapter 51, making chapter 52 a true editorial appendix. Since chapter 52 parallels 2 Kings 24:18–25:30, it may be that other portions of Jeremiah that parallel sections of 2 Kings may have been written by someone other than Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>The following table shows such portions and includes harmonic passages in 2 Chronicles. The first column shows historical (chronological) sequence. The last column provides a brief condensation of content.<\/p>\n<p>Baruch served as the secretary for Jeremiah. The relationship between the two men apparently lasted many years; the prophet gave a word of encouragement as he blessed his helper (45:5). According to the custom of the people, it would have been legitimate for the scribe to write some of the prophet’s messages in his own words. This would not deny inspiration.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>That Jeremiah lived and actually wrote the major part of the book bearing his name is authenticated by numerous references in both biblical and nonbiblical sources (e.g., Dn 9; Ecclus 49; Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 10; Talmud: <em>Baba Bathra<\/em>). The veracity of the historical sections of Jeremiah have abundant confirmation in contemporary biblical books and in the secular histories preserved in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia.<\/p>\n<p>Higher critics sought to discredit the portions of Jeremiah that were omitted by the Septuagint, or to credit passages to a later writer because of style differences (e.g., chs 30–33) or spelling differences (as found in chs 27–29) or linguistic problems (as in 10:11, written in Aramaic, but this may be a gloss). Another reason for discrediting Jeremiah’s authorship is that critics dated some prophecies later than indicated in the context. This results from their requiring that predictive writing follow the record of its fulfillment. None of these reasons is sufficient cause for doubting authenticity. The Hebrew text deserves priority over the Septuagint. Aramaic contact with the Jews became commonplace during this period (cf. Ezr 4–7; Dn 2–7) and therefore explains the presence of Aramaic. Different styles may be expected from the same writer due to differing circumstances and differing purposes. Baruch may have been inspired to write parts of this book and\/or edited what Jeremiah wrote. Prediction preceding fulfillment presents no problem for believers.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBookofJeremiahandtheSeptuagint\">The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint<\/p>\n<p>The special problems of the Septuagint translation of Jeremiah demand attention. The Septuagint translators evidently made an inaccurate translation. About 2,300 Hebrew words are omitted from the Septuagint. After chapter 23, the mistranslation, omissions, and mixed chronological order indicate confusion. However, the Dead Sea Scrolls display texts with both the Hebrew and the Septuagint order, indicating the antiquity of both editions. Both have suffered corruption at the hands of scribes and the ravages of the ages. The Septuagint evidently veers much further from the original, yet it has invaluable clues to help suggest answers to some textual problems. The most evident major shift in the Septuagint consists of the removal of chapters 46–51 of the Hebrew order, and the placement of them in the spot from which 25:13b-14 was removed. These chapters are renumbered 26–31 but are mixed and changed considerably from the order of the Hebrew Masoretic Text.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>This is fully discussed in the previous entry. <em>See<\/em> Jeremiah (Person) #1.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The chronological sequence of the messages of Jeremiah constitutes a major problem that cannot be wholly solved. Nonetheless, the book was written during Jeremiah’s ministry (c. 627–586 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>After beginning his ministry in Anathoth, Jeremiah moved to Jerusalem, where he remained until he was forced to join the disobedient refugees who arrived in Egypt about 584 <span>BC<\/span>. Until the deportation of Jehoiachin (597 <span>BC<\/span>), Jeremiah addressed his messages to the king and the people residing in Judah. Later messages addressed the same group, plus the captives in Babylon (e.g., ch 29). After the departure to Egypt, he addressed Jews in that land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Part of God’s commission to Jeremiah stated the purpose of Jeremiah’s ministry: “Today I appoint you to stand up against nations and kingdoms. You are to uproot some and tear them down, to destroy and overthrow them. You are to build others up and plant them” (1:10, <span>nlt<\/span>). The first four parts of the commission required that Jeremiah, appointed as a “chief governor” over nations, should wreck the existing religious and social structures by his preaching against moral and spiritual sin. Doubtless, the physical destruction caused by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians was the accoutrement for the truth uttered by the prophet. Jeremiah is consistent in his blasts at moral and religious wickedness, his call to submit to the punishment that God gives through Babylon, and his assurance that such submission will lead to blessing. When Zedekiah asks advice (38:14), we know what Jeremiah will say. When the captains of the refugees ask if they should go to Egypt, we already know the answer (42:3). We may also anticipate the obdurate rejection of God’s message on the part of the inquiring people, who apparently want to know God’s will but have no desire to obey it.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, part of Jeremiah’s purpose focuses on the most distant future when the new covenant will supplant the old (31:31-37), and a transformed people bent on obedience rather than sin will receive God’s promised kingdom.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Teaching\">Teaching<\/p>\n<p>National sin brings national punishment. No truth blazes so clearly as this. Gentiles as well as Jews stand under the same judgment, for God is not the God of Israel only.<\/p>\n<p>Individuals are not overlooked in divine judgments on nations. God sets before each the way of life and the way of death (21:8) and appeals to each to choose life (27:13).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah illustrates human depravity by questioning if people can change their skin color or leopards their spots (13:23). The depths of depravity reach beyond man’s ability to measure (17:9-10). People even love falsehood (5:30-31). Yet God promises to transform willing subjects who call on him (33:3) by giving them a “new heart” (24:7; 32:38-41) as the climatic provision of the new covenant (31:33-35). The Messiah, who accomplishes the saving work, is called the Lord our Righteousness, the King, the righteous Branch, the Branch of David (23:5-6; 33:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>A future nation will be made up of individuals who accept this salvation. Passing through the night of tribulation as of travail (30:6-7), the Jews will understand the true identity of their Messiah, will believe and receive him with repentant sorrow, will be cleansed (33:8), and will be regathered from all countries (32:37) by the omnipotent God (v 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OutlineandContent\">Outline and Content<\/p>\n<p>Though many see no logical order, a careful reading of Jeremiah will reveal a grouping on the basis of content, as suggested by the following outline:<\/p>\n<li> I. Introduction (1)<\/li>\n<li> II. Oracles against the Jews (2–25)<\/li>\n<li>III. History—Signs and Sufferings of Jeremiah before the Siege (26–29)<\/li>\n<li> IV. The Book of Hope written during the Siege (30–33)<\/li>\n<li> V. History—Signs and Sufferings of Jeremiah after the Siege (34–45)<\/li>\n<li> VI. Oracles against the Nations (46–51)<\/li>\n<li>VII. Conclusion (52)<\/li>\n<p>The prophet opens his ministry with a series of utterances against the sins of Jerusalem (2:1–3:5), followed by similar messages (through ch 4), concluding with words of judgment (chs 5–6). The message in the temple gate (chs 7–10) leads into the proclamation against covenant breakers (chs 11–13). The lamentation over the drought (ch 14) and subsequent miseries (ch 15) compares with many similar expressions of grief. Jeremiah did not differ from other prophets in his use of object lessons. The rotted linen waistband (ch 13), the broken jug (ch 19), figs (ch 24), and ox yoke (chs 27–28) may be supplemented by human object lessons (ch 35), and even the prophet himself, whose celibacy (16:1-4), resistance to sympathetic consolation (16:5-7), and withdrawal from feasts (16:8-9) all served to illustrate and confirm his message.<\/p>\n<p>Places where Jeremiah proclaimed his messages helped bear home his point. He stood in the public gate, where kings came and went, to proclaim that judgment (fire) would come through the gate (17:19, 27; 39:3). Then he went to the potter’s house (ch 18), and then to Hinnom or Topath, which would be called the Valley of Slaughter (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>The persecution suffered by Jeremiah first hinted at (1:8), then predicted (v 19), expresses its venom privately from his home village (11:19-23). The prophet’s kindred join the opposition (12:6). Public opposition brings beatings and the stocks (20:2-3). Jeremiah prefers to keep silent rather than to speak and suffer (v 9), but he cannot withhold the word that is as fire in his bones. The result: all his familiars reproached, derided, terrorized, and denounced him, then sought his death (vv 7-18). Jeremiah escaped death at the hands of priests, prophets, and people only because he had a few faithful friends (26:8-24). When his prophecies began to materialize, hatred mounted. He was beaten and put into a dungeon for many days (37:14-17) on a false charge. Temporary relief at the guardhouse (v 21) lasted only a few days. Officials clamored again for his death (38:4) and put him into a cistern, where he sank in the mire (v 6). His rescue (v 10) preserved his life, but his imprisonment at the guardhouse continued (v 28). His writings were cut up and burned (36:23); his words were denied and rejected (43:1-7; 44:16).<\/p>\n<p>The “Book of Hope“ (chs 30–33) does contain some words of judgment (32:28-35), and other sections of the prophecy have a few bright spots (3:11-18; 16:14-16; 23:2-8; 29:10-14), but in a volume otherwise dark, these four chapters bring pleasant relief. The climax of hope, as indicated also in the longest NT quotation from Jeremiah (see Heb 8:8-12), predicts a new covenant (31:31-40). Other prophecies also describe the end of the Mosaic law and sacrament (e.g., 3:16), and the new covenant (32:40; 33:19-26).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of Jeremiah’s activity or messages from c. 594–589 <span>BC<\/span>. Zedekiah’s counselors made clandestine plans for throwing off Babylon’s yoke by alliances with neighbor nations. A traitor may have reported the conspiracy to Babylon (perhaps Edom). After Babylon attacked, Zedekiah sought a hopeful report from Jeremiah but did not get it.<\/p>\n<p>The Recabite faithfulness to the Nazarite vow (ch 35) dates to the days of Jehoiakim but as an object lesson fits the siege context. Recabites received a human command that they obeyed; Jews received a divine command that they rejected. Recabites will be blessed (35:18-19); Judah, judged (vv 15-17). The reading of the scroll to Jehoiakim and his scornful rejection of it (ch 36) illustrates the prophetic assertion (35:15) that destruction follows the rejection of God’s message given through the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>The siege comes into focus in chapter 37 with another inquiry from Zedekiah (the nonchronological chs 35–36 serve as an illustrative parenthesis). Jeremiah 37:11 moves forward to the time of the lifting of the siege of 589 <span>BC<\/span> when Nebuchadnezzar drove Pharaoh Hophra’s army back to Egypt. During the reprieve, Jeremiah sought to attend a meeting of relatives to settle family matters at or near Anathoth. Perhaps the trip involved initiating the purchase that would be made two years later (32:6-15). However, as he was leaving the city, he was arrested for desertion to the Babylonians and jailed in a dungeon cell until Zedekiah granted him privileged prisoner status.<\/p>\n<p>The king’s officers had ample cause for the accusation of sedition: Jeremiah had encouraged desertion (21:9; 38:2). Traitors deserved death, and this was their verdict against Jeremiah (38:4-5). The violence of the time encouraged the officers to select a cruel method of execution: let Jeremiah starve and bury himself in the mire at the bottom of an abandoned cistern. A sympathetic Ethiopian, Ebed-melech, made the rescue. Immediately, the unadulterated prophecies of judgment came forth again from Jeremiah’s lips, including a message to the king that reflected Jeremiah’s own recent experience: “[Your friends] have betrayed and misled you. When your feet sank in the mud, they left you to your fate” (38:22, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 39:1–43:7 records history from the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span> to the flight into Egypt, including the liberation of Jeremiah (ch 39), appointment and assassination of Gedaliah (chs 40–41), a warning from God against going to Egypt (ch 42), and the obdurate disobedience of the people (43:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The latest writings of Jeremiah are found in chapter 44. The audience consisted of idolatrous Jews (44:4-6) gathered from various parts of Egypt as far as Aswan (Pathros). Jeremiah repeated the appeal of former prophets to reject false gods in favor of Jehovah, but to no avail (44:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>The message to Baruch (ch 45), written about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, is placed here to round out the main part of the book, which begins with the commission to “break down” and “pluck up” (1:10) and concludes with the same Hebrew words (45:4). If Baruch had ambition to obtain status in the Judean court like his brother Seraiah (51:59), he was advised that it would be useless because disaster would come, as the preceding chapters indicate.<\/p>\n<p>The oracles against the nations (46–51), introduced by a title superscription (46:1), constitute a distinct stylistic division similar to Isaiah 13–23, Ezekiel 25–32, and Amos 1:3–2:16.<\/p>\n<p>Some of the prophecies against foreign nations in Jeremiah carry dates that show that they were written at different points during his ministry but were collected together for the book.<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy against Egypt opens with a colorful description of Egypt’s expulsion from Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>) after a short occupancy (Jer 46:1-12). The second message (vv 13-26) may picture the attack on Egypt in 601 <span>BC<\/span> when Neco stopped Nebuchadnezzar at the border; the attack in 589 <span>BC<\/span> when Hophra lost in his attempt to aid Zedekiah; or (most probably) the invasion of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar in 568 <span>BC<\/span>, when Babylon took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to occupy it. At that time Nebuchadnezzar set up his judgment throne as predicted (43:10) and meted out death sentences to all rebels, including those Jews who might have been implicated in anti-Babylonian conspiracies. The conclusion of the Egypt oracle repeats part of the Book of Hope (46:27-28, cf. 30:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Messages against Edom, Arabia, Phoenician cities, and Ammon generally condemn pride, cruelty, and idolatry. The oracle against Elam is unique. No other prophet speaks judgment against this people, whose dwelling east of Babylon meant rare contact with Judah. Jeremiah predicted that Elam would be doomed, then restored. Ezekiel counts Elamites among the inhabitants of Sheol (Ez 32:24).<\/p>\n<p>The final judgment indicates the unbiased attitude of the prophet. His messages placed him in an advantageous position with the Babylonians, who treated him with respect and kindness, in contrast to their cruelty to other Jews. But when God spoke against Babylon, Jeremiah uttered God’s words without respect to his own comfort, just as he had spoken against Egypt when silence would have been logical for self-preservation.<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 51 concludes “the words of Jeremiah.”<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 52 repeats historical facts previously stated prophetically by Jeremiah, and partially recorded also as history in chapter 39 (cf. 2 Kgs 25 and 2 Chr 36). The editor of Jeremiah evidently desired to climax the book with a historical confirmation of Jeremiah’s prophecy, but he included facts beyond those contained elsewhere.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jeremiah (Person) #1; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEREMIAH, Book of OT prophetic book, second in the canonical order of the Prophets. Preview • Author • Authenticity • The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint • Background • Date • Origin and Destination • Purpose • Teaching • Outline and Content Author Few doubt that the prophet from Anathoth wrote the book of Jeremiah, yet questions persist concerning some parts, particularly chapter 52. The use of the third person cannot be used to discredit Jeremiah’s authorship, for Jeremiah used the firs...","summary_en":"JEREMIAH, Book of OT prophetic book, second in the canonical order of the Prophets. Preview • Author • Authenticity • The Book of Jeremiah and the Septuagint • Background • Date • Origin and Destination • Purpose • Teaching • Outline and Content Author Few doubt that the prophet from Anathoth wrote the book of Jeremiah, yet questions persist concerning some parts, particularly chapter 52. The use of the third person cannot be used to discredit Jeremiah’s authorship, for Jeremiah used the firs...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23403,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lord","title_en":"Lord","content_ro":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LORD<\/h3>\n<p>“Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘adonai<\/span> or of the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>.<\/em> The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “<span>Lord<\/span>”; <em>See<\/em> Yahweh (YHWH).<\/p>\n<p>God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets indicated that God is Lord or King of history because he directs the affairs of humans and nations (1 Kgs 19:15-18; Is 10:5-9; Am 9:7) and he is the Lord of universal morality (Ez 25–32; Am 1:3–2:16). But he is especially the Lord of Israel; his expressed will represents their civil and religious constitution and demands absolute obedience (Ex 20:2). The divine sovereignty was, however, Israel’s comfort under oppression and hope for the future, when a triumphant Day of the Lord would right its wrongs, punish its oppressors, and restore its glory (Is 2:2-4, 11-12; 34:8; Ez 30:1-5; Jl 2:31–3:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the Septuagint, the regular expression for “Lord\/ lord\/master” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which in the Greek NT also is used of masters, husbands, and rulers (Mt 25:11; Lk 14:21; Acts 25:26; 1 Pt 3:6); of God (Mt 11:25; Heb 8:2); and of pagan gods (1 Cor 8:5). It is used of Jesus as a customary title of respect (“sir,” Mt 8:2; 15:25); it also retains its Septuagint associations of faith, reverence, and worship (Mt 3:3; Lk 7:13; Acts 5:14; 9:10; 1 Cor 6:13-14; Heb 2:3; Jas 5:7); it appears in phrases like “the Lord Jesus,” “the Lord’s Day,” “the Lord’s Table,” “the Spirit of the Lord” (who is also “Lord,” 2 Cor 3:17), “in the Lord,” “from the Lord,” “light in the Lord,” “boast in the Lord.” Sometimes it is not clear whether God or Christ is intended (Acts 9:31; 2 Cor 8:21). The title is attributed to Jesus himself in John 13:13-14; in John 20:28 Jesus accepts the title “My Lord and my God!”<\/p>\n<p>In the first Christian sermon Jesus’ lordship is made central to salvation (Acts 2:21). It appears that the public confession of Jesus as Lord was the approved focus and expression of Christian faith, and the basis of membership in the apostolic church (Acts 16:31; Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3; Phil 2:11). Thus, it could become more a formal statement than a sincere expression of belief—hence, the warnings in Matthew 7:21 and Luke 6:46.<\/p>\n<p>From the first, such a confession was fraught with meaning. In common usage “lord” reflected the slave system and implied the absolute power exercised by the master over the purchased slave. So Paul unhesitatingly expounds the moral implications of Christian redemption (1 Cor 6:19-20; 7:22-23; <em>see<\/em> photo). To Jewish minds, the title had messianic overtones of kingship and authority (Lk 20:41-44), offending both Jews and Romans. Politically, “Lord” was a title claimed by Caesar. Therefore, it is significant that Jesus is called “King of kings and Lord of lords” during the age of Domitian when Caesar worship was mandated (Rv 17:14; 19:16).<\/p>\n\n<p>Among Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion, familiar with the Septuagint, as among Gentiles, for whom “Lord” was the customary title for the many gods of polytheism, the application to Jesus of the epithet belonging to godhead was blasphemous, especially when associated with “Son of God,” prayer, praise, total devotion, and hope (1 Cor 8:5-6; Phil 2:9-11; 1 Thes 4:14-17). On every level, therefore, the adoring tribute given to Jesus was loaded not only with spiritual meaning but with positive and imminent danger.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","summary_en":"LORD “Lord” in English is the rendering of the Hebrew ‘adonai or of the Greek kurios. The Hebrew YHWH is usually rendered “Lord”; See Yahweh (YHWH). God’s rule and authority as Lord rests ultimately upon his creation and ownership of all things and people (Ps 24:1-2). God’s total supremacy over nature is emphasized by his being called the Lord over earthquakes, wind, fire (1 Kgs 19:10-14), stars (Is 40:26), beasts and sea monsters (Jb 40–41), and primeval chaos (Pss 74:12-14; 89:8-10). The la...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25923,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27054,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nations","title_en":"Nations","content_ro":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","summary_en":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53877,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","summary_en":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53878,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53879,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","summary_en":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81503,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","summary_en":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81504,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81505,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","summary_en":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109129,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","summary_en":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109130,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109131,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","summary_en":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136755,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3–2:16<\/strong> The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","summary_en":"1:3–2:16 The eight judgments of this prophecy proceed from the most obvious enemy, Damascus, to the least obvious, Israel itself. The sequence would have engaged Israel’s attention as they heard God’s judgment against their enemies, but Amos eventually confronted the people with God’s judgment on them.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136756,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3-5<\/strong> <em>Damascus<\/em>, the capital of <em>Aram<\/em><em>,<\/em> was brutal in its treatment of the people of <em>Gilead<\/em><em>,<\/em> Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 <span>BC<\/span>), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","summary_en":"1:3-5 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was brutal in its treatment of the people of Gilead, Israel’s territory east of the Jordan. By the time Ahab died (853 BC), Damascus had captured Ramoth in Gilead (1 Kgs 22:3). Around 801 BC, Assyria captured Damascus, and the city never again held the power it had wielded in its prime.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136757,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:3","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:3<\/strong> <em>have sinned again and again:<\/em> Literally <em>have committed three sins, even four.<\/em> This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • <em>beat down my people:<\/em> Threshing <em>grain<\/em> involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden <em>sledges<\/em> with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic picture of the brutality of the people of Damascus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","summary_en":"1:3 have sinned again and again: Literally have committed three sins, even four. This expression is used for a repeated act of rebellion against the natural order established by God. The Hebrew phrase does not denote a strict count but a pattern of repeated violations. • beat down my people: Threshing grain involved separating the heads of the grain from their hulls by pulling wooden sledges with sharp teeth over the cut grain (Isa 41:15; see Mic 4:13). This description provides a graphic pic...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64690,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92316,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119942,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147568,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":53880,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","summary_en":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81506,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","summary_en":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109132,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","summary_en":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136758,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:4<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • <em>Hazael<\/em> reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 <span>BC<\/span>) after he seized the throne by assassination. <em>Ben-hadad<\/em> was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","summary_en":"1:4 I will send down fire: In ancient times conquered cities were burned by invading armies (see also 1:7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5). The conquest of Damascus would be God’s judgment on them. • Hazael reigned as king of Damascus (about 843–802 BC) after he seized the throne by assassination. Ben-hadad was Hazael’s son and successor (about 802–792 BC).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":41614,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69240,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96866,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124492,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3226,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aven","title_en":"Aven","content_ro":"<h3>AVEN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Term used by Ezekiel to describe On (Heliopolis), center of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra (Ez 30:17). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">aven<\/span> (“wickedness”) was a play on the name On in a prophecy against the idolatry and wickedness of Egypt. <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>\n<li>2. Epithet for Bethel (Hos 10:8), shortened from Beth-aven, “house of wickedness” (Hos 4:15; 5:8; 10:5). The prophet Hosea was condemning the northern kingdom’s idolatry, for which Bethel was one center (1 Kgs 12:28-29). <em>See<\/em> Beth-aven #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Valley where Syria was to be punished because of its transgression against the Lord (Am 1:5), perhaps an oblique reference to Baalbek, the center of Syria’s Baal worship in the Beqa’a valley.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AVEN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Term used by Ezekiel to describe On (Heliopolis), center of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra (Ez 30:17). The Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">aven<\/span> (“wickedness”) was a play on the name On in a prophecy against the idolatry and wickedness of Egypt. <em>See<\/em> Heliopolis.<\/li>\n<li>2. Epithet for Bethel (Hos 10:8), shortened from Beth-aven, “house of wickedness” (Hos 4:15; 5:8; 10:5). The prophet Hosea was condemning the northern kingdom’s idolatry, for which Bethel was one center (1 Kgs 12:28-29). <em>See<\/em> Beth-aven #2.<\/li>\n<li>3. Valley where Syria was to be punished because of its transgression against the Lord (Am 1:5), perhaps an oblique reference to Baalbek, the center of Syria’s Baal worship in the Beqa’a valley.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AVEN 1. Term used by Ezekiel to describe On (Heliopolis), center of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra (Ez 30:17). The Hebrew word aven (“wickedness”) was a play on the name On in a prophecy against the idolatry and wickedness of Egypt. See Heliopolis. 2. Epithet for Bethel (Hos 10:8), shortened from Beth-aven, “house of wickedness” (Hos 4:15; 5:8; 10:5). The prophet Hosea was condemning the northern kingdom’s idolatry, for which Bethel was one center (1 Kgs 12:28-29). See Beth-aven #2. 3. Va...","summary_en":"AVEN 1. Term used by Ezekiel to describe On (Heliopolis), center of worship of the Egyptian sun god Ra (Ez 30:17). The Hebrew word aven (“wickedness”) was a play on the name On in a prophecy against the idolatry and wickedness of Egypt. See Heliopolis. 2. Epithet for Bethel (Hos 10:8), shortened from Beth-aven, “house of wickedness” (Hos 4:15; 5:8; 10:5). The prophet Hosea was condemning the northern kingdom’s idolatry, for which Bethel was one center (1 Kgs 12:28-29). See Beth-aven #2. 3. Va...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4431,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beth-Eden","title_en":"Beth-Eden","content_ro":"<h3>BETH-EDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Small Aramean (Syrian) state north of Damascus. Assyria conquered Beth-eden and deported its people to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9), fulfilling the prediction in Amos 1:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “house of Eden”). Beth-eden, which means “house of delight,” is sometimes equated with the Eden of Ezekiel 27:23, the location of which is unknown. Its inhabitants are referred to as the “children of Eden” in 2 Kings 19:12 (<span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETH-EDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Small Aramean (Syrian) state north of Damascus. Assyria conquered Beth-eden and deported its people to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9), fulfilling the prediction in Amos 1:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “house of Eden”). Beth-eden, which means “house of delight,” is sometimes equated with the Eden of Ezekiel 27:23, the location of which is unknown. Its inhabitants are referred to as the “children of Eden” in 2 Kings 19:12 (<span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETH-EDEN Small Aramean (Syrian) state north of Damascus. Assyria conquered Beth-eden and deported its people to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9), fulfilling the prediction in Amos 1:5 (kjv “house of Eden”). Beth-eden, which means “house of delight,” is sometimes equated with the Eden of Ezekiel 27:23, the location of which is unknown. Its inhabitants are referred to as the “children of Eden” in 2 Kings 19:12 (kjv).","summary_en":"BETH-EDEN Small Aramean (Syrian) state north of Damascus. Assyria conquered Beth-eden and deported its people to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9), fulfilling the prediction in Amos 1:5 (kjv “house of Eden”). Beth-eden, which means “house of delight,” is sometimes equated with the Eden of Ezekiel 27:23, the location of which is unknown. Its inhabitants are referred to as the “children of Eden” in 2 Kings 19:12 (kjv).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16101,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heliopolis","title_en":"Heliopolis","content_ro":"<h3>HELIOPOLIS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Egyptian city famed as a center for worship of the sun god Re. Heliopolis (“city of the sun”) was located in the Nile River delta region of Lower Egypt, a few miles northeast of modern Cairo. Heliopolis became important from about 2400 <span>BC<\/span>, with the emergence of Atum-Re as the cult deity. Many pharaohs embellished the city’s temples and put up various public monuments, especially in the New Kingdom period (1570–1150 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Since the temples contained the royal archives, the priests became the official historians of Egypt. Herodotus, a Greek historian of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, said the priests at Heliopolis were famous for their knowledge of Egyptian history. There were also training schools for priests and a medical school in the city.<\/p>\n<p>Other Egyptian sun worship centers existed at various times, but Heliopolis maintained its popularity for some 2,000 years. Though the city was of little importance politically, it was of primary religious influence. Among Egyptian religious buildings, the temple of Re at Heliopolis was second in size only to the temple of Amon at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Heliopolis is called On. When Joseph was a member of the Egyptian official class, he married Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera the priest of On (Gn 41:45, 50; 46:20). The prophet Ezekiel warned of coming destruction in Egypt by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, citing Heliopolis (On) as one of the cities to be destroyed (Ez 30:17). In Amos 1:5, the <span>rsv<\/span> (mg) has an alternative rendering, “On,” for “Valley of Aven,” and the same reading in Ezekiel 30:17 for the <span>nlt<\/span> “Heliopolis.” The prophet Jeremiah also predicted the destruction of the obelisks (sacred pillars) of Heliopolis (Jer 43:13, <span>kjv<\/span> “Beth-shemesh”). Isaiah 19:18 is probably also a reference to Heliopolis (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The city lost its prominence in the fourth and third centuries <span>BC<\/span>, partly because of the library founded at Alexandria early in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. Alexandria replaced Heliopolis as the leading intellectual center in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Little remains today from the ancient city of the sun, but an obelisk erected by Sesostris I (1971–1928 <span>BC<\/span>) can still be seen at the site of Heliopolis. Several obelisks from Heliopolis, erected by Thutmose III (1490–1436 <span>BC<\/span>), have been moved to various parts of the world in modern times.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HELIOPOLIS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Egyptian city famed as a center for worship of the sun god Re. Heliopolis (“city of the sun”) was located in the Nile River delta region of Lower Egypt, a few miles northeast of modern Cairo. Heliopolis became important from about 2400 <span>BC<\/span>, with the emergence of Atum-Re as the cult deity. Many pharaohs embellished the city’s temples and put up various public monuments, especially in the New Kingdom period (1570–1150 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Since the temples contained the royal archives, the priests became the official historians of Egypt. Herodotus, a Greek historian of the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, said the priests at Heliopolis were famous for their knowledge of Egyptian history. There were also training schools for priests and a medical school in the city.<\/p>\n<p>Other Egyptian sun worship centers existed at various times, but Heliopolis maintained its popularity for some 2,000 years. Though the city was of little importance politically, it was of primary religious influence. Among Egyptian religious buildings, the temple of Re at Heliopolis was second in size only to the temple of Amon at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Heliopolis is called On. When Joseph was a member of the Egyptian official class, he married Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera the priest of On (Gn 41:45, 50; 46:20). The prophet Ezekiel warned of coming destruction in Egypt by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, citing Heliopolis (On) as one of the cities to be destroyed (Ez 30:17). In Amos 1:5, the <span>rsv<\/span> (mg) has an alternative rendering, “On,” for “Valley of Aven,” and the same reading in Ezekiel 30:17 for the <span>nlt<\/span> “Heliopolis.” The prophet Jeremiah also predicted the destruction of the obelisks (sacred pillars) of Heliopolis (Jer 43:13, <span>kjv<\/span> “Beth-shemesh”). Isaiah 19:18 is probably also a reference to Heliopolis (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The city lost its prominence in the fourth and third centuries <span>BC<\/span>, partly because of the library founded at Alexandria early in the third century <span>BC<\/span>. Alexandria replaced Heliopolis as the leading intellectual center in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Little remains today from the ancient city of the sun, but an obelisk erected by Sesostris I (1971–1928 <span>BC<\/span>) can still be seen at the site of Heliopolis. Several obelisks from Heliopolis, erected by Thutmose III (1490–1436 <span>BC<\/span>), have been moved to various parts of the world in modern times.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HELIOPOLIS Ancient Egyptian city famed as a center for worship of the sun god Re. Heliopolis (“city of the sun”) was located in the Nile River delta region of Lower Egypt, a few miles northeast of modern Cairo. Heliopolis became important from about 2400 BC, with the emergence of Atum-Re as the cult deity. Many pharaohs embellished the city’s temples and put up various public monuments, especially in the New Kingdom period (1570–1150 BC). Since the temples contained the royal archives, the pr...","summary_en":"HELIOPOLIS Ancient Egyptian city famed as a center for worship of the sun god Re. Heliopolis (“city of the sun”) was located in the Nile River delta region of Lower Egypt, a few miles northeast of modern Cairo. Heliopolis became important from about 2400 BC, with the emergence of Atum-Re as the cult deity. Many pharaohs embellished the city’s temples and put up various public monuments, especially in the New Kingdom period (1570–1150 BC). Since the temples contained the royal archives, the pr...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22139,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kir","title_en":"Kir","content_ro":"<h3>KIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of Moab. Soldiers from Kir were associated with those from Elam (Is 22:6). Likewise, Kir was paralleled with Ar in Isaiah’s lament over Moab (15:1). Kir of Moab, therefore, is probably the same as Kir-hareseth (2 Kgs 3:25; Is 16:7), located at Kerak, 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) east of the southern end of the Dead Sea.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of Moab. Soldiers from Kir were associated with those from Elam (Is 22:6). Likewise, Kir was paralleled with Ar in Isaiah’s lament over Moab (15:1). Kir of Moab, therefore, is probably the same as Kir-hareseth (2 Kgs 3:25; Is 16:7), located at Kerak, 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) east of the southern end of the Dead Sea.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KIR 1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile. 2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of M...","summary_en":"KIR 1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile. 2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of M...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34076,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Scepter","title_en":"Scepter","content_ro":"<h3>SCEPTER<\/h3>\n<p>Long staff with an ornamental head and other decorations used to represent royal authority; a shorter staff was used as a battle mace to symbolize royal military power. It is of more than passing interest that those two ideas are also conveyed by the Bible when the word “scepter” appears in a passage. The scepter of royal authority is referred to in Genesis 49:10, indicating that Judah’s descendants would exercise royal authority (so also in Ps 45:6, two times, and quoted in Heb 1:8). Amos (Am 1:5, 8) refers to the royal authority of the kings of Syria and Philistia, and Zechariah (Zec 10:11) refers to that of Egypt. King Ahasuerus held out this type of scepter to Esther (Est 4:11; 5:2; 8:4). The scepter of royal military power is referred to in Numbers 24:17 in reference to the coming messianic King. In Isaiah 14:5 it refers to the means by which Babylon exercised its oppressive military power, which was to be destroyed by God. Ezekiel 19:11, 14 uses “scepter” to refer to the authority, power, and dominion that Israel lost and was not able to regain.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SCEPTER<\/h3>\n<p>Long staff with an ornamental head and other decorations used to represent royal authority; a shorter staff was used as a battle mace to symbolize royal military power. It is of more than passing interest that those two ideas are also conveyed by the Bible when the word “scepter” appears in a passage. The scepter of royal authority is referred to in Genesis 49:10, indicating that Judah’s descendants would exercise royal authority (so also in Ps 45:6, two times, and quoted in Heb 1:8). Amos (Am 1:5, 8) refers to the royal authority of the kings of Syria and Philistia, and Zechariah (Zec 10:11) refers to that of Egypt. King Ahasuerus held out this type of scepter to Esther (Est 4:11; 5:2; 8:4). The scepter of royal military power is referred to in Numbers 24:17 in reference to the coming messianic King. In Isaiah 14:5 it refers to the means by which Babylon exercised its oppressive military power, which was to be destroyed by God. Ezekiel 19:11, 14 uses “scepter” to refer to the authority, power, and dominion that Israel lost and was not able to regain.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SCEPTER Long staff with an ornamental head and other decorations used to represent royal authority; a shorter staff was used as a battle mace to symbolize royal military power. It is of more than passing interest that those two ideas are also conveyed by the Bible when the word “scepter” appears in a passage. The scepter of royal authority is referred to in Genesis 49:10, indicating that Judah’s descendants would exercise royal authority (so also in Ps 45:6, two times, and quoted in Heb 1:8)....","summary_en":"SCEPTER Long staff with an ornamental head and other decorations used to represent royal authority; a shorter staff was used as a battle mace to symbolize royal military power. It is of more than passing interest that those two ideas are also conveyed by the Bible when the word “scepter” appears in a passage. The scepter of royal authority is referred to in Genesis 49:10, indicating that Judah’s descendants would exercise royal authority (so also in Ps 45:6, two times, and quoted in Heb 1:8)....","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36551,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syrians Syria","title_en":"Syrians Syria","content_ro":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","summary_en":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53881,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","summary_en":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81507,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","summary_en":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109133,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","summary_en":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136759,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:5<\/strong> <em>Aven<\/em> and <em>Beth-eden<\/em> were both connected with Aram and Damascus. <em>Aven<\/em> (meaning <em>evil, wickedness<\/em>) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state <em>Beth-eden<\/em> was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called <em>Eden<\/em> (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from <em>Kir<\/em> (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel (see Deut 28:68), Kir represented captivity for Aram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","summary_en":"1:5 Aven and Beth-eden were both connected with Aram and Damascus. Aven (meaning evil, wickedness) refers to the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains or the plain of Damascus. The city-state Beth-eden was north of Aram, elsewhere simply called Eden (2 Kgs 19:12; Ezek 27:23). • The Arameans originally came from Kir (Amos 9:7), probably in southern Babylonia; Kir was where Assyria deported them when Damascus fell (2 Kgs 16:9). Just as Egypt was a symbol of captivity for Israel ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":41152,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Philistines","title_en":"The Philistines","content_ro":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","summary_en":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68778,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Philistines","title_en":"The Philistines","content_ro":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","summary_en":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96404,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Philistines","title_en":"The Philistines","content_ro":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","summary_en":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124030,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"The Philistines","title_en":"The Philistines","content_ro":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Philistines<\/h3>\n<p>The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 <span>BC<\/span> and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath.<\/p>\n<p>Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advances in iron technology made them an almost invincible foe (see 1 Sam 13:19-22). They were constant adversaries of the Israelites in the days of the judges (approximately 1350–1050 <span>BC<\/span>) and the early united monarchy (approximately 1050–970 <span>BC<\/span>). Saul eventually died in battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 31:1-13). David, however, vanquished them before becoming king (1 Sam 18:20-30; 19:8; 23:1-5) and continued to gain victory over them during his reign (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22). While the Philistines never completely disappeared while Israel was a nation (2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18), David effectively ended this menacing threat.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel, God used the Philistines to eliminate the sinful family of Eli (1 Sam 4:10-22). The Philistines were also God’s tool for building David’s military and political career (1 Sam 17:32-58; 18:20-30). They distracted Saul when he was about to capture David (1 Sam 23:26-28), provided David with refuge from Saul (1 Sam 21:10-15; 27:1-12), prevented David from having to fight his own people (1 Sam 29:1-11), and by killing Saul and his sons (1 Sam 31:1-13), opened the way for David to become king. In the end, however, the Philistines experienced God’s judgment (see Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:13-14; Judg 3:1-3; Judg 13:1–16:31; 1 Sam 5:1–6:18; 13:16–14:23; 21:10-15; 23:1-5, 26-28; 31:1-10; 2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1; 21:15-22; 2 Kgs 18:8; 2 Chr 17:10-11; 21:16-17; 26:6-7; 28:18-19; Isa 2:6; Ezek 25:15-17; Amos 1:6-8; 9:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","summary_en":"The Philistines The Philistines, situated on the southeast coastal plain of the Mediterranean, were part of a larger group of maritime immigrants from the Aegean area known by the Egyptians as the “Sea Peoples.” They settled on Palestine’s lower coastal plain around 1200 BC and established the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gaza, and Gath. Far from being unsophisticated, the Philistines were politically capable and technologically advanced. They were also fierce warriors. Their advan...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1466,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gaza","title_en":"Gaza","content_ro":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAZA<\/h3>\n<p>City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town.<\/p>\n<p>Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers) from the Mediterranean, Gaza’s position as the greatest trading center of ancient Palestine did not come from the sea but from the highways, which brought caravans from all parts of the Fertile Crescent. This accessibility was also a handicap, for the roadways along the coast were the easiest route for the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Often Gaza was the victim of their passage.<\/p>\n\n<p>In the records of secular history, Gaza first shows up in the annals of Thutmose III in the temple of Karnak. Thutmose wisely scheduled his Asiatic campaigns just after the Egyptian harvest and in time to seize the harvest of Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>In Amarna Letter 289, Abdu-Heba of Jerusalem acknowledged that Gaza was loyal to the king of Egypt but complained that Addaya, the Egyptian ruler of Palestine whose residence was at Gaza, had taken the garrison the pharaoh had sent for Jerusalem. From the late 13th century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a satirical letter that was composed as an exercise for training scribes. In this letter, written from one scribe to belittle another, various itineraries are traced, including one from the frontier of Egypt to Gaza.<\/p>\n<p>Pharaoh Neco (610–595 <span>BC<\/span>) captured and chastised Gaza and Ashkelon in the reign of Josiah and Judah (cf. Jer 47:1, 5).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) refers to Hanno of Gaza, who fled to Egypt just prior to the capture of Gaza by the Assyrians. On the Oriental Institute Prism and the Taylor Prism, Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) tells of his invasion of Palestine and of how he shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage.” He captured 46 of Hezekiah’s fortified cities and gave them to three minor kings, including Sillibel of Gaza, who is also mentioned by Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ashurbanipal (669–633 <span>BC<\/span>). Reference to “the king of Gaza” also appears in the records of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (604–562 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In 332 <span>BC<\/span> Gaza was captured and punished by Alexander the Great. He was angered because it had held out against him for two months, so he killed all of the men and sold the women and children into slavery. During the Maccabean period, it was taken by Alexander Janneus, who slaughtered its inhabitants.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, Gaza is first mentioned in Genesis 10:19, where it is said that the territory of the Canaanites extended from Sidon to Gaza. In a summary of the conquests of Joshua, one of the dimensions of the conquered area is “from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza” (Jos 10:41). Joshua destroyed all the Anakim in the land, but some remained in Gaza and other Philistine cities (11:22). Another ancient people, the Avvim, “who lived in villages as far as Gaza,” were annihilated and replaced by the Caphtorim from Caphtor, or Crete (Dt 2:23). Gaza, along with its towns and villages, was listed among the tribal inheritance of Judah (Jos 15:47). At the time of Joshua’s advanced age, Gaza and the other four cities of the Philistine Pentapolis are said to be among the territories not yet taken (13:3); in Judges 1:18-19, however, it is reported that Judah took it.<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the judges, Midianite raiders swept through Israel, looting and destroying, even as far as Gaza (Jgs 6:4). In this period the main biblical interest in Gaza centers in the life and exploits of Samson. Philistine women were Samson’s weakness. He went to Gaza and found a prostitute with whom he had relations (16:1). The people of Gaza learned that he was there and determined to kill him in the morning, but Samson arose at midnight and went to the gate of the city, took the doors, posts, and the bar of the gate and carried them to the top of a hill facing Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>His involvement with another Philistine woman, Delilah, resulted in his capture by the Philistines, who gouged out his eyes and took him to Gaza (Jgs 16:21), where he was bound and forced to grind at a mill in the prison. On a festival day in the temple of Dagon, the reveling worshipers called for Samson to be brought so they could make sport of him. His strength was returning, and God answered his prayer for vengeance. Samson dislodged the two pillars that were the support of the stone slab roof of the pagan temple, so Samson died, along with a great number of Gazites.<\/p>\n<p>Gaza is named as the southern boundary of Israel during the time of Solomon, who ruled over “all the region west of the Euphrates from Tiphsah to Gaza” (1 Kgs 4:24). Hezekiah defeated the Philistines as far as Gaza (2 Kgs 18:8). When he rebelled against Assyria, Sennacherib came and took 46 of Hezekiah’s cities and gave them to the king of Gaza and two other kings.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah 47 records a prophecy against the Philistines, which the Lord gave to the prophet before Pharaoh attacked Gaza (v 1; cf. v 5; see Neco above). Amos gives specific prophecies of judgment against Gaza (Am 1:6-7). Zephaniah also states that Gaza would be deserted (Zep 2:4). Zechariah 9 gives an oracle of judgment in which it is said that Gaza will suffer and that its king shall perish.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT there is only one reference to Gaza (Acts 8:26). Philip, who was preaching in Samaria, was told by an angel to go south to “the road that goes from Jerusalem to Gaza.” Here he met the treasurer of Cush, who was reading Isaiah 53 as he rode in his chariot. Philip preached the gospel to this man and baptized him.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","summary_en":"GAZA City near the Palestinian coast, about 50 miles (80.5 kilometers) west-southwest of Jerusalem. It has been occupied almost continuously since ancient times; modern Gaza has played an important part in the conflict between Arabs and Israelis. Gazite and Gazathite are biblical names for the residents of the town. Set about midpoint of the length of the plain of Philistia, Gaza was a rich agricultural area where wheat and similar grains flourished. Situated some three miles (4.8 kilometers)...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53882,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","summary_en":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81508,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","summary_en":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109134,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","summary_en":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136760,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:6<\/strong> The Philistine city of <em>Gaza<\/em><em>,<\/em> on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold <em>whole villages<\/em> into slavery <em>to Edom<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","summary_en":"1:6 The Philistine city of Gaza, on the seacoast at the southwest edge of Palestine, was the gateway for traffic between Africa and Asia. Its sin was slave trading; Philistia had raided Israel or Judah and sold whole villages into slavery to Edom.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":53883,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","summary_en":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81509,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","summary_en":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109135,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","summary_en":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136761,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:7<\/strong> <em>I will send down fire:<\/em> Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","summary_en":"1:7 I will send down fire: Uzziah conquered Philistia (2 Chr 26:6); in 701 BC, the Assyrian invasion all but ended the distinct identity of the Philistines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":1464,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2993,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ashkelon","title_en":"Ashkelon","content_ro":"<h3>ASHKELON<\/h3>\n<p>City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (<span>kjv<\/span>). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 <span>BC<\/span>) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conquered by Judah (Jgs 1:18). After the Philistine invasion of Canaan in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>, the city became one of the invaders’ major centers. When Samson’s riddle was answered through the duplicity of his Philistine wife, Samson vented his rage at Ashkelon, killing 30 men (Jgs 14:19). Ashkelon was partially responsible for pushing the tribe of Dan from its allotment; so Samson, a member of that tribe, probably had a long-standing grudge against the city. Ashkelon also figures in the story of the Philistine control of the ark (1 Sm 4–6). On hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, David lamented the loss of his king and of his friend, exclaiming that their deaths should not be published in Ashkelon (2 Sm 1:20). Various OT prophets refer to Ashkelon (Jer 25:20; 47:5-6; Am 1:8; Zep 2:4-7; Zec 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the period of Israel’s decline King Pekah of Israel, King Rezin of Damascus, and the king of Ashkelon rebelled against Assyria. Tiglath-pileser III responded with three successive campaigns (734–732 <span>BC<\/span>), the first of which conquered Ashkelon. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city and deported many of its inhabitants to Egypt during his conquest of Palestine (604 <span>BC<\/span>). Successive invaders then took the city from each other: Scythians, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, and Maccabees. Ashkelon was the birthplace of Herod the Great, and ruins of his building projects are to be found there. Ashkelon is not mentioned in the NT but was a battleground in the Jewish rebellion against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASHKELON<\/h3>\n<p>City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (<span>kjv<\/span>). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 <span>BC<\/span>) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conquered by Judah (Jgs 1:18). After the Philistine invasion of Canaan in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>, the city became one of the invaders’ major centers. When Samson’s riddle was answered through the duplicity of his Philistine wife, Samson vented his rage at Ashkelon, killing 30 men (Jgs 14:19). Ashkelon was partially responsible for pushing the tribe of Dan from its allotment; so Samson, a member of that tribe, probably had a long-standing grudge against the city. Ashkelon also figures in the story of the Philistine control of the ark (1 Sm 4–6). On hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan, David lamented the loss of his king and of his friend, exclaiming that their deaths should not be published in Ashkelon (2 Sm 1:20). Various OT prophets refer to Ashkelon (Jer 25:20; 47:5-6; Am 1:8; Zep 2:4-7; Zec 9:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the period of Israel’s decline King Pekah of Israel, King Rezin of Damascus, and the king of Ashkelon rebelled against Assyria. Tiglath-pileser III responded with three successive campaigns (734–732 <span>BC<\/span>), the first of which conquered Ashkelon. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city and deported many of its inhabitants to Egypt during his conquest of Palestine (604 <span>BC<\/span>). Successive invaders then took the city from each other: Scythians, Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, and Maccabees. Ashkelon was the birthplace of Herod the Great, and ruins of his building projects are to be found there. Ashkelon is not mentioned in the NT but was a battleground in the Jewish rebellion against Rome (<span>AD<\/span> 66).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASHKELON City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (kjv). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 BC) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 BC). Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conq...","summary_en":"ASHKELON City dating back to ancient times, also spelled Askelon (kjv). In the Bible, Ashkelon was one of the Philistines’ five main cities (the “pentapolis”), along with Gaza, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron (Jos 13:3). Ashkelon was located on the Mediterranean coast, 30 miles (48 kilometers) south of modern Tel Aviv, and was always an important port. Often in conflict with Egypt, it was captured by Ramses II (c. 1286 BC) and by Merneptah (c. 1220 BC). Ashkelon is mentioned as one of the cities conq...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ekron, Ekronites*","title_en":"Ekron, Ekronites*","content_ro":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EKRON, EKRONITES*<\/h3>\n<p>Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p>Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashdod and Gath, it was taken to Ekron (1 Sm 5:1-10). The Ekronites did not want the ark, so they consulted with the “lords of the Philistines” and proposed that the ark be sent back to Israel (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>After David killed Goliath, the Israelites pursued the Philistines to the gates of Ekron, which at that time apparently was the nearest walled city in which fugitives could take refuge (1 Sm 17:52).<\/p>\n<p>Ekron was apparently the center of the worship of the god Baal-zebub. When Ahaziah injured himself and lay ill, he preferred to consult with Baal-zebub rather than with God. Elijah was sent by God to denounce Ahaziah and tell him that he would die (2 Kgs 1:2-18). Baal worship may have been increasing in Israel at this time. Ekron is included in the denunciations of several prophets: Jeremiah (25:20), Amos (1:8), Zephaniah (2:4), and Zechariah (9:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records inform us that Ekron revolted against Sennacherib in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. The rebels deposed Padi, the ruler of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, and handed him over to Hezekiah in Jerusalem for imprisonment. Sennacherib moved against Ekron, and Ekron called for aid from the king of Mutsri (either Egypt or a district of northwestern Arabia). Sennacherib lifted his siege of Ekron long enough to defeat the army of Mutsri, and then returned to take Ekron. He executed the rebels, made captives of their followers, forced Hezekiah to release Padi, and restored Padi as ruler of the city. Padi also received some territory taken from Judah. Padi’s successor, Ikausu, was not so fortunate. He, along with Manasseh of Judah, was forced to pay heavy tribute to both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.<\/p>\n<p>In 147 <span>BC<\/span> the king of Syria, Alexander Epiphanes, gave Ekron to Jonathan Maccabeus as a reward for his loyalty (1 Macc 10:89). In the fourth century <span>AD<\/span> it still had a large Jewish population.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Philistia, Philistines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","summary_en":"EKRON, EKRONITES* Most northerly city among the major Philistine settlements. During the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, Ekron was not taken by Joshua (Jos 13:3). When the land was divided among the 12 tribes, Ekron was given first to Judah and then to Dan (15:11, 45-46; 19:43). It was eventually taken by Judah (Jgs 1:18), but it subsequently fell back to the Philistines. Ekron played a prominent role in the story of the capture of the ark of the covenant. After the ark brought disaster to Ashd...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53884,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","summary_en":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81510,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","summary_en":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109136,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","summary_en":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136762,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:8<\/strong> The Philistine cities of <em>Ashdod<\/em> and <em>Ashkelon<\/em> were on or near the seacoast, while <em>Ekron<\/em> lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • <em>the few Philistines still left:<\/em> The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","summary_en":"1:8 The Philistine cities of Ashdod and Ashkelon were on or near the seacoast, while Ekron lay inland. Gath is not mentioned here, as it had been conquered earlier by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17) and then Uzziah (2 Chr 26:6). • the few Philistines still left: The Philistines maintained their ethnic identity through the Assyrian period, but this distinction faded by the time of the Persians (Zech 9:5-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":37804,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tyre","title_en":"Tyre","content_ro":"<h3>TYRE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyptian citation from the same period. Tyre first appears in the Bible in the list of cities that comprised Asher’s inheritance (Jos 19:29). At that time, it was described as a “strong city” and was evidently never conquered by the Israelites (2 Sm 24:7). Tyre was most significant as a mercantile center, with maritime contacts throughout the Mediterranean region and overland traffic with Mesopotamia and Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>During David’s and Solomon’s monarchies, Tyre was a strong commercial ally of Israel. Both David and Solomon contracted with Hiram of Tyre for timber, building materials, and skilled laborers, for which they provided Tyre with agriculture produce (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1-11; 1 Chr 14:1; 2 Chr 2:3-16). After the division of the kingdom, Tyre evidently maintained friendly relations with Israel for some time. Ahab’s wife, Jezebel, was the daughter of “Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians,” a king who is known elsewhere as Ithobal of Tyre (1 Kgs 16:31; cf. Menander). At some point, however, the pressure of Assyrian and Babylonian aggression dissolved the alliance, so that by the time of Samaria’s fall, Tyre and Israel were no longer aligned and shortly thereafter became enemies.<\/p>\n<p>During the later kingdom period, Tyre was the focus for some of the strongest prophetic denunciations recorded in Scripture (Is 23:1-18; Jer 25:22; 27:1-11; Ez 26:1-19; Jl 3:4-8; Am 1:9-10). Tyre’s condemnation was justified for several reasons. Because of its commercial significance, Tyre was the focal point of Assyrian and Egyptian rivalries. Tyre managed, however, to play these rivals against each other while building its wealth and exploiting its neighbors. Additionally, the city of Tyre was not only a city of unscrupulous merchants but also a center of religious idolatry and sexual immorality. Foremost among Tyre’s sins was pride induced by its great wealth and strategic location. Ezekiel’s prophecy against Tyre offers a detailed picture of the city, its commercial empire, its sin, and its eventual demise (Ez 26:1-28; 29:18-20). The final destruction of Tyre did not come for almost 1,900 years (<span>AD<\/span> 1291), though it was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar for 13 years (587–574 <span>BC<\/span>), and conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 <span>BC<\/span> after a seven-month siege, during which he built a causeway out to the island. Ezekiel’s description of Tyre’s arrogance can be compared to that of Satan’s, with Tyre’s words “I am a God, I sit in the seat of God” (<span>kjv<\/span>) being the expression that led to the fall of both Satan and Tyre (Ez 28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Despite Alexander’s destruction of the city, Tyre had regained prominence by the NT period, being equal to or greater than Jerusalem in terms of population and commercial power. Jesus visited the region surrounding Tyre during his early ministry, healing the Syrophoenician woman’s daughter (Mt 15:21-28; Mk 7:24-31). Jesus also compared the Galilean towns that had rejected him to Tyre and Sidon, suggesting that the Galileans would bear greater responsibility for their rejection because of the number of miracles he had performed among them (Lk 10:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TYRE<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyptian citation from the same period. Tyre first appears in the Bible in the list of cities that comprised Asher’s inheritance (Jos 19:29). At that time, it was described as a “strong city” and was evidently never conquered by the Israelites (2 Sm 24:7). Tyre was most significant as a mercantile center, with maritime contacts throughout the Mediterranean region and overland traffic with Mesopotamia and Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>During David’s and Solomon’s monarchies, Tyre was a strong commercial ally of Israel. Both David and Solomon contracted with Hiram of Tyre for timber, building materials, and skilled laborers, for which they provided Tyre with agriculture produce (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1-11; 1 Chr 14:1; 2 Chr 2:3-16). After the division of the kingdom, Tyre evidently maintained friendly relations with Israel for some time. Ahab’s wife, Jezebel, was the daughter of “Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians,” a king who is known elsewhere as Ithobal of Tyre (1 Kgs 16:31; cf. Menander). At some point, however, the pressure of Assyrian and Babylonian aggression dissolved the alliance, so that by the time of Samaria’s fall, Tyre and Israel were no longer aligned and shortly thereafter became enemies.<\/p>\n<p>During the later kingdom period, Tyre was the focus for some of the strongest prophetic denunciations recorded in Scripture (Is 23:1-18; Jer 25:22; 27:1-11; Ez 26:1-19; Jl 3:4-8; Am 1:9-10). Tyre’s condemnation was justified for several reasons. Because of its commercial significance, Tyre was the focal point of Assyrian and Egyptian rivalries. Tyre managed, however, to play these rivals against each other while building its wealth and exploiting its neighbors. Additionally, the city of Tyre was not only a city of unscrupulous merchants but also a center of religious idolatry and sexual immorality. Foremost among Tyre’s sins was pride induced by its great wealth and strategic location. Ezekiel’s prophecy against Tyre offers a detailed picture of the city, its commercial empire, its sin, and its eventual demise (Ez 26:1-28; 29:18-20). The final destruction of Tyre did not come for almost 1,900 years (<span>AD<\/span> 1291), though it was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar for 13 years (587–574 <span>BC<\/span>), and conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 <span>BC<\/span> after a seven-month siege, during which he built a causeway out to the island. Ezekiel’s description of Tyre’s arrogance can be compared to that of Satan’s, with Tyre’s words “I am a God, I sit in the seat of God” (<span>kjv<\/span>) being the expression that led to the fall of both Satan and Tyre (Ez 28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Despite Alexander’s destruction of the city, Tyre had regained prominence by the NT period, being equal to or greater than Jerusalem in terms of population and commercial power. Jesus visited the region surrounding Tyre during his early ministry, healing the Syrophoenician woman’s daughter (Mt 15:21-28; Mk 7:24-31). Jesus also compared the Galilean towns that had rejected him to Tyre and Sidon, suggesting that the Galileans would bear greater responsibility for their rejection because of the number of miracles he had performed among them (Lk 10:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TYRE Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 BC. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyp...","summary_en":"TYRE Ancient Phoenician city-state located on the Mediterranean coast 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) south of Sidon and 23 miles (37 kilometers) north of Acre. Tyre consisted of two major parts: an older port city on the mainland and an island city a half mile (.8 kilometer) from the coast where the majority of the population lived. According to Herodotus, Tyre was founded around 2700 BC. Its earliest historical attestations, however, are references in a 15th-century Ugaritic document and an Egyp...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53885,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","summary_en":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81511,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","summary_en":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109137,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","summary_en":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136763,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:9<\/strong> <em>Tyre<\/em> and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was <em>selling whole villages<\/em> of Israelite captives to the Edomites <em>as slaves<\/em><em>,<\/em> a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","summary_en":"1:9 Tyre and Sidon were the principal seaports of Phoenicia. • Tyre’s crime, like Philistia’s (1:6-8), was selling whole villages of Israelite captives to the Edomites as slaves, a captivity made more bitter by a sense of betrayal (see 2 Sam 5:11; 1 Kgs 5:1, 11; 16:30-31). Tyre’s reputation was “anything is for sale”; Isaiah portrayed the city as a prostitute peddling her wares (Isa 23:15-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":53886,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","summary_en":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81512,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","summary_en":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109138,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","summary_en":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136764,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:10","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:10<\/strong> <em>fire on the walls:<\/em> The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","summary_en":"1:10 fire on the walls: The main part of Tyre was built on an island, making it almost impossible to capture (see Ezek 26:1–28:19).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":1467,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edomites Edom","title_en":"Edomites Edom","content_ro":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","summary_en":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53887,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","summary_en":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81513,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","summary_en":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109139,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","summary_en":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136765,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:11<\/strong> <em>Edom<\/em> was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds <em>the Israelites<\/em> to make explicit what <em>relatives<\/em> (literally <em>brother<\/em>) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","summary_en":"1:11 Edom was another betrayer (see 1:9; Gen 36; see also Gen 25:23-30; 27:39-40). • The NLT adds the Israelites to make explicit what relatives (literally brother) means (see Gen 25:25-30). “Brothers” can also refer to parties to a treaty (see Amos 1:9). Apparently Edom exerted constant pressure on the borders of Israel and Judah, raiding and plundering at moments of weakness (Jer 49:7-22; Obad 1:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":5593,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bozrah","title_en":"Bozrah","content_ro":"<h3>BOZRAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Well-fortified city in northern Edom (Gn 36:33; 1 Chr 1:44), regarded as impossible to conquer because it was protected by cliffs on three sides. Located 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) north of Petra, at modern Buseirah, it controlled the traffic on the King’s Highway. Bozrah was mentioned as one of the strongholds that would fall when God judged Edom (Is 34:6; 63:1; Jer 49:13; Am 1:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities cited by the prophet Jeremiah as collapsing with the Moabite nation (Jer 48:24); probably a variant spelling of Bezer. <em>See<\/em> Bezer (Place).<\/li>\n<li>3. City also called Bosorah captured by Judas Maccabeus in the course of his Gilead campaign (1 Macc 5:26, 28). It is perhaps the same place as #2 above.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BOZRAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Well-fortified city in northern Edom (Gn 36:33; 1 Chr 1:44), regarded as impossible to conquer because it was protected by cliffs on three sides. Located 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) north of Petra, at modern Buseirah, it controlled the traffic on the King’s Highway. Bozrah was mentioned as one of the strongholds that would fall when God judged Edom (Is 34:6; 63:1; Jer 49:13; Am 1:12).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the cities cited by the prophet Jeremiah as collapsing with the Moabite nation (Jer 48:24); probably a variant spelling of Bezer. <em>See<\/em> Bezer (Place).<\/li>\n<li>3. City also called Bosorah captured by Judas Maccabeus in the course of his Gilead campaign (1 Macc 5:26, 28). It is perhaps the same place as #2 above.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BOZRAH 1. Well-fortified city in northern Edom (Gn 36:33; 1 Chr 1:44), regarded as impossible to conquer because it was protected by cliffs on three sides. Located 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) north of Petra, at modern Buseirah, it controlled the traffic on the King’s Highway. Bozrah was mentioned as one of the strongholds that would fall when God judged Edom (Is 34:6; 63:1; Jer 49:13; Am 1:12). 2. One of the cities cited by the prophet Jeremiah as collapsing with the Moabite nation (Jer 48:24)...","summary_en":"BOZRAH 1. Well-fortified city in northern Edom (Gn 36:33; 1 Chr 1:44), regarded as impossible to conquer because it was protected by cliffs on three sides. Located 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) north of Petra, at modern Buseirah, it controlled the traffic on the King’s Highway. Bozrah was mentioned as one of the strongholds that would fall when God judged Edom (Is 34:6; 63:1; Jer 49:13; Am 1:12). 2. One of the cities cited by the prophet Jeremiah as collapsing with the Moabite nation (Jer 48:24)...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36920,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Teman (Place)","title_en":"Teman (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>TEMAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>In the prophetic writings, Teman seems to have been considered the principal city of Edom and is often used as a poetic parallel for the entire land of Edom (Jer 49:7, 20; Am 1:12; Ob 1:9). Since Teman means “south,” it is likely that Teman was located in the far south of Edom; however, its precise location remains unknown. The residents of Teman were evidently well known for their wisdom (Jer 49:7; Ob 1:9). This reputation may well derive from Eliphaz the Temanite, who was one of Job’s counselors (Jb 2:11, 4:1; 15:1; 22:1; 42:7-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMAN (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>In the prophetic writings, Teman seems to have been considered the principal city of Edom and is often used as a poetic parallel for the entire land of Edom (Jer 49:7, 20; Am 1:12; Ob 1:9). Since Teman means “south,” it is likely that Teman was located in the far south of Edom; however, its precise location remains unknown. The residents of Teman were evidently well known for their wisdom (Jer 49:7; Ob 1:9). This reputation may well derive from Eliphaz the Temanite, who was one of Job’s counselors (Jb 2:11, 4:1; 15:1; 22:1; 42:7-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMAN (Place) In the prophetic writings, Teman seems to have been considered the principal city of Edom and is often used as a poetic parallel for the entire land of Edom (Jer 49:7, 20; Am 1:12; Ob 1:9). Since Teman means “south,” it is likely that Teman was located in the far south of Edom; however, its precise location remains unknown. The residents of Teman were evidently well known for their wisdom (Jer 49:7; Ob 1:9). This reputation may well derive from Eliphaz the Temanite, who was one ...","summary_en":"TEMAN (Place) In the prophetic writings, Teman seems to have been considered the principal city of Edom and is often used as a poetic parallel for the entire land of Edom (Jer 49:7, 20; Am 1:12; Ob 1:9). Since Teman means “south,” it is likely that Teman was located in the far south of Edom; however, its precise location remains unknown. The residents of Teman were evidently well known for their wisdom (Jer 49:7; Ob 1:9). This reputation may well derive from Eliphaz the Temanite, who was one ...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53888,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","summary_en":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81514,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","summary_en":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109140,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","summary_en":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136766,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:12","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:12<\/strong> With the destruction of the major cities of <em>Teman<\/em> and <em>Bozrah<\/em><em>,<\/em> Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 <span>BC<\/span> (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","summary_en":"1:12 With the destruction of the major cities of Teman and Bozrah, Edom lost its capacity for continual warfare. Babylon destroyed Edom shortly after Judah in 553 BC (see Jer 27; 49:7-22; see also study note on Obad 1:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":1468,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32264,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Rabbah of the Ammonites","title_en":"Rabbah of the Ammonites","content_ro":"<h3>RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and renamed it Philadelphia. After the Romans took Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, the city became part of the Decapolis, and after <span>AD<\/span> 106 was part of the Roman province of Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah first appears in Scripture as the place where the great iron bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was kept (Dt 3:11; <span>kjv<\/span> “Rabbath of the children of Ammon”). When Transjordan was divided among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, the territory of Gad extended to the vicinity of Rabbah but did not include it (Jos 13:25).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah figured most significantly in Scripture during David’s reign. At that time Joab laid siege to the city, and during the battle, Uriah the Hittite lost his life by the specific command of the king (2 Sm 11:1; 12:26-29). The city was built in two parts—the upper city and the lower city, called the “city of waters” (12:27). Joab took the lower city and perhaps gained control of the water supply, and then waited for David to come and complete the conquest (vv 27-28). After a thorough sack of Rabbah, David did not station troops in the city but left it under the control of the Ammonites, who became vassals of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>About 250 years later, Amos pronounced judgment on the then-prosperous city (Am 1:13-14). When Nebuchadnezzar stopped at Rabbah during his invasion of Transjordan, it was a significant place (Ez 21:20). It was at Rabbah that Baalis, king of the Ammonites, later plotted the attack that resulted in the death of Gedaliah (Jer 40:14ff.), the Babylonian governor of Judea, and the exile of Jeremiah into Egypt. Jeremiah’s prophecy against Rabbah is recorded in Jeremiah 49:2-3.<\/p>\n<p>Since modern Amman covers ancient Rabbah, no excavation of the ancient city is possible. The Roman theater stands in the center of the city, with seating for 6,000 people. Dilapidated remains of an odeum, or music hall, and a fountain, also of the Roman period, stand nearby. Everything visible on the ancient citadel is Roman, Byzantine, or Arab, except at the northeast corner, where part of the Iron Age town wall is still exposed. The Roman temple at the southwest corner of the citadel was dedicated to Hercules.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Decapolis; Philadelphia #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and renamed it Philadelphia. After the Romans took Palestine in 63 <span>BC<\/span>, the city became part of the Decapolis, and after <span>AD<\/span> 106 was part of the Roman province of Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah first appears in Scripture as the place where the great iron bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was kept (Dt 3:11; <span>kjv<\/span> “Rabbath of the children of Ammon”). When Transjordan was divided among the tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, the territory of Gad extended to the vicinity of Rabbah but did not include it (Jos 13:25).<\/p>\n<p>Rabbah figured most significantly in Scripture during David’s reign. At that time Joab laid siege to the city, and during the battle, Uriah the Hittite lost his life by the specific command of the king (2 Sm 11:1; 12:26-29). The city was built in two parts—the upper city and the lower city, called the “city of waters” (12:27). Joab took the lower city and perhaps gained control of the water supply, and then waited for David to come and complete the conquest (vv 27-28). After a thorough sack of Rabbah, David did not station troops in the city but left it under the control of the Ammonites, who became vassals of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>About 250 years later, Amos pronounced judgment on the then-prosperous city (Am 1:13-14). When Nebuchadnezzar stopped at Rabbah during his invasion of Transjordan, it was a significant place (Ez 21:20). It was at Rabbah that Baalis, king of the Ammonites, later plotted the attack that resulted in the death of Gedaliah (Jer 40:14ff.), the Babylonian governor of Judea, and the exile of Jeremiah into Egypt. Jeremiah’s prophecy against Rabbah is recorded in Jeremiah 49:2-3.<\/p>\n<p>Since modern Amman covers ancient Rabbah, no excavation of the ancient city is possible. The Roman theater stands in the center of the city, with seating for 6,000 people. Dilapidated remains of an odeum, or music hall, and a fountain, also of the Roman period, stand nearby. Everything visible on the ancient citadel is Roman, Byzantine, or Arab, except at the northeast corner, where part of the Iron Age town wall is still exposed. The Roman temple at the southwest corner of the citadel was dedicated to Hercules.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Decapolis; Philadelphia #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century BC, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and...","summary_en":"RABBAH OF THE AMMONITES Capital of the ancient Ammonite kingdom. Located near the sources of the Jabbok River, it stood about 25 miles (40.2 kilometers) east of the Jordan and lay astride the main caravan route leading from Damascus south along the length of the Transjordanian plateau. This road was also known as the King’s Highway (Nm 20:17; 21:22). Modern Amman, the capital of Jordan, covers the ancient city. During the third century BC, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt rebuilt the city and...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53889,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","summary_en":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81515,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","summary_en":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109141,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","summary_en":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136767,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:13","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:13<\/strong> Israel regarded the people of <em>Ammon<\/em> as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly <em>ripped open pregnant women<\/em> (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","summary_en":"1:13 Israel regarded the people of Ammon as kin who also betrayed them. The Ammonites (like the Moabites, 2:1) were descendants of Lot, Abraham’s nephew (Gen 19:37-38). Ammon had been a constant threat to Gilead (see Judg 10:7-9). • In ancient times, conquering armies commonly ripped open pregnant women (2 Kgs 8:12; 15:16; Hos 13:16); they also raped the women and slaughtered the children of the towns they seized (Isa 13:16, 18; Lam 5:11; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Nah 3:10; Zech 14:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":38345,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Whirlwind","title_en":"Whirlwind","content_ro":"<h3>WHIRLWIND<\/h3>\n<p>Term descriptive of any strong, potentially destructive wind (Jb 27:20; Ps 77:18; Dn 11:40). While whirlwinds are relatively common in the arid regions of the Middle East (e.g., dust devils), the apparent fury and destructiveness of the biblical “whirlwinds” makes it unlikely that the relatively harmless dust devils are intended (cf. Am 1:14; Hb 3:14). Sirocco winds from the eastern deserts are occasionally cyclonic in form, but the winds in Scripture may not be whirlwinds in the technical sense.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical whirlwinds were often associated with divine activity. Elijah was taken into heaven by a whirlwind (one case where “whirlwind” may properly be translated as such; 2 Kgs 2:1, 11). God frequently spoke out of the whirlwind (Jb 38:1; 40:6; Ps 77:18). The description of the sudden destruction of divine judgment was frequently associated with storms, tempests, and whirlwinds (Hos 8:7; Am 1:14; Na 1:3; Hb 3:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WHIRLWIND<\/h3>\n<p>Term descriptive of any strong, potentially destructive wind (Jb 27:20; Ps 77:18; Dn 11:40). While whirlwinds are relatively common in the arid regions of the Middle East (e.g., dust devils), the apparent fury and destructiveness of the biblical “whirlwinds” makes it unlikely that the relatively harmless dust devils are intended (cf. Am 1:14; Hb 3:14). Sirocco winds from the eastern deserts are occasionally cyclonic in form, but the winds in Scripture may not be whirlwinds in the technical sense.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical whirlwinds were often associated with divine activity. Elijah was taken into heaven by a whirlwind (one case where “whirlwind” may properly be translated as such; 2 Kgs 2:1, 11). God frequently spoke out of the whirlwind (Jb 38:1; 40:6; Ps 77:18). The description of the sudden destruction of divine judgment was frequently associated with storms, tempests, and whirlwinds (Hos 8:7; Am 1:14; Na 1:3; Hb 3:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WHIRLWIND Term descriptive of any strong, potentially destructive wind (Jb 27:20; Ps 77:18; Dn 11:40). While whirlwinds are relatively common in the arid regions of the Middle East (e.g., dust devils), the apparent fury and destructiveness of the biblical “whirlwinds” makes it unlikely that the relatively harmless dust devils are intended (cf. Am 1:14; Hb 3:14). Sirocco winds from the eastern deserts are occasionally cyclonic in form, but the winds in Scripture may not be whirlwinds in the te...","summary_en":"WHIRLWIND Term descriptive of any strong, potentially destructive wind (Jb 27:20; Ps 77:18; Dn 11:40). While whirlwinds are relatively common in the arid regions of the Middle East (e.g., dust devils), the apparent fury and destructiveness of the biblical “whirlwinds” makes it unlikely that the relatively harmless dust devils are intended (cf. Am 1:14; Hb 3:14). Sirocco winds from the eastern deserts are occasionally cyclonic in form, but the winds in Scripture may not be whirlwinds in the te...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53890,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","summary_en":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81516,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","summary_en":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109142,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","summary_en":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136768,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:14<\/strong> <em>Rabbah<\/em> was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s <span>BC<\/span>, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","summary_en":"1:14 Rabbah was the chief city of the Ammonites (2 Sam 12:26). • Ammon (Amos 1:13) was crushed by the Assyrians in the 800s BC, then attacked and depopulated by the Babylonians in the 700s.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":53891,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","summary_en":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81517,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","summary_en":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109143,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","summary_en":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136769,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 1:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 1:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>1:15<\/strong> <em>their king:<\/em> The Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkam<\/span> may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went <em>into exile together<\/em> with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","summary_en":"1:15 their king: The Hebrew term malkam may be a reference to the Ammonite god Molech. In ancient times, people believed that a conquered nation’s god or gods went into exile together with them (see 5:26-27; 1 Sam 5:1-2; Isa 46:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}