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{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1469,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5487,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bone","title_en":"Bone","content_ro":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BONE<\/h3>\n<p>One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22).<\/p>\n<p>A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life back into them (Ez 37:1-14). In a living body, however, bones are living tissue, and Ezekiel knew that broken bones could heal (30:21). Intact bones were a requirement for an unblemished lamb for the Passover (Ex 12:46; Nm 9:11-12). Thus, the NT states that when Jesus Christ, the “Lamb of God” (Jn 1:36), was crucified, contrary to Roman practice, his legs were not broken (Ps 34:20; Jn 19:30-37).<\/p>\n<p>Some references to bones in the Bible (Jb 2:5; 19:20; 30:30) carry the connotation of deep feelings, as in the phrase “I feel it in my bones.” Other references are metaphorical expressions of close kinship, “flesh and bone” (Gn 2:23; 29:14; Jgs 9:2) being equivalent to the expression “one’s own flesh and blood.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","summary_en":"BONE One of the separate parts of the human or animal skeleton. After death, bones retain their form long after the soft tissues have decomposed, so bones are often associated with dead bodies or with death itself. The Israelites were concerned about proper respect for the bodies of the dead (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:11-13; 2 Kgs 23:14-18; Ez 39:14-16; Am 2:1; Heb 11:22). A valley of “old, dry bones” symbolized the people of Israel, who were without hope until the Spirit of the Lord would put life b...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26160,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53892,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","summary_en":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81518,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","summary_en":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109144,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","summary_en":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136770,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:1","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:1<\/strong> <em>desecrated the bones:<\/em> In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured <em>Edom’s king<\/em>. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the <em>ashes<\/em> (literally <em>lime<\/em>) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","summary_en":"2:1 desecrated the bones: In some past skirmish, the Moabites had captured Edom’s king. Cremation was considered a form of desecration; if the ashes (literally lime) of the king were used in plaster, the insult would be compounded.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":21113,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judas","title_en":"Judas","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simon’s son, surnamed Iscariot; one of the 12 disciples of Jesus. The derivation of Iscariot is uncertain. In all probability it designated the place of his birth, the town of Kerioth. His childhood home was perhaps Kerioth of Moab, east of the Jordan (Jer 48:24; Am 2:2), or Kerioth-hezron of southern Judah, also known as Hazor (Jos 15:25). A less feasible suggestion identifies Iscariot with an Aramaic word meaning “assassin,” a word eventually attached to Judas’s name because of his betrayal of Jesus.<\/li>\n<p>Judas Iscariot’s name appears last in the list of disciples (Mt 10:4; Mk 3:19; Lk 6:16), perhaps indicating his ignominy in the minds of later believers rather than his original importance among the Twelve. During Jesus’ public ministry, he managed the treasury of the group (Jn 13:29), from which he was known to pilfer money (12:6). As a betrayer, Judas contracted to turn Jesus over to the chief priests for 30 pieces of silver. He accomplished this act of treachery by singling out Jesus with a kiss in the Garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:14-47; Mk 14:10-46; Lk 22:3-48; Jn 18:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>Various suggestions have been offered to explain Judas’s traitorous deed. (1) In keeping with his patriotic zeal, Judas turned Jesus over to the authorities after realizing that his Master did not intend to overthrow the Roman order and establish a Jewish state. (2) Judas believed Jesus to be the Messiah and planned his arrest in hope of urging Jesus to usher in his kingdom. (3) He was a scoundrel who had plotted wickedness since the start of Jesus’ public ministry. (4) Prompted by a satanic impulse, Judas betrayed Jesus; however, after recognizing that he was deceived, out of remorse he took his own life. (5) With damaged pride and humiliated ego from Jesus’ caustic rebukes, Judas, originally a loyal disciple, turned against him. (6) Judas, moved by his own greed, yielded to his selfish instincts, not realizing that Jesus would consequently be tried and killed; upon learning the outcome of his betrayal, he repented in despair and committed suicide.<\/p>\n<p>Judas, despondent over his act of betrayal, went out and hung himself in a field bought with his 30 pieces of silver (Mt 27:3-10). Acts 1:18 gruesomely adds that his body burst open, spilling out his intestines; for this reason the field was called the “Field of Blood” (Acts 1:19). Matthias later took Judas Iscariot’s place among the Twelve (v 26).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Joseph and Mary, and the brother of Jesus, James, Joseph, and Simon (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). Evidently Judas and his brothers rejected Jesus as Messiah (Jn 7:5) until after his resurrection (Acts 1:14). Later, it is thought, Judas (English “Jude”) authored the epistle named Jude.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of James and one of the 12 disciples (Lk 6:16; Jn 14:22; Acts 1:13). He is identifiable with Thaddeus in Matthew 10:3 and Mark 3:18. <em>See<\/em> Thaddaeus, The Apostle.<\/li>\n<li>4. Galilean who led a Jewish revolt against the Romans because of the census taken by Quirinius in <span>AD<\/span> 6. In Acts 5:37 the Pharisee Gamaliel mentioned Judas as an example of one who unsuccessfully tried to gain the support of the Jewish people. Josephus credited him with founding the Jewish Zealot party, an extreme revolutionary movement that attempted to throw off Roman rule and to reestablish Jewish autonomy (<em>War<\/em> 2.8.1).<\/li>\n<li>5. Owner of a house along the street called Straight in Damascus. Here, following his conversion, Saul (Paul) found lodging and had his vision restored by Ananias (Acts 9:11).<\/li>\n<li>6. Prophet and leader in the early Jerusalem church. Judas, surnamed Barsabbas, was selected with Silas to accompany Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, where they confirmed the Jerusalem Council’s decision regarding the gentile church and subsequently encouraged its believers (Acts 15:22-32). <em>See<\/em> Joseph #12.<\/li>\n<li>7. KJV spelling of Judah, Jacob’s son (Mt 1:2-3). <em>See<\/em> Judah (Person) #1.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAS<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simon’s son, surnamed Iscariot; one of the 12 disciples of Jesus. The derivation of Iscariot is uncertain. In all probability it designated the place of his birth, the town of Kerioth. His childhood home was perhaps Kerioth of Moab, east of the Jordan (Jer 48:24; Am 2:2), or Kerioth-hezron of southern Judah, also known as Hazor (Jos 15:25). A less feasible suggestion identifies Iscariot with an Aramaic word meaning “assassin,” a word eventually attached to Judas’s name because of his betrayal of Jesus.<\/li>\n<p>Judas Iscariot’s name appears last in the list of disciples (Mt 10:4; Mk 3:19; Lk 6:16), perhaps indicating his ignominy in the minds of later believers rather than his original importance among the Twelve. During Jesus’ public ministry, he managed the treasury of the group (Jn 13:29), from which he was known to pilfer money (12:6). As a betrayer, Judas contracted to turn Jesus over to the chief priests for 30 pieces of silver. He accomplished this act of treachery by singling out Jesus with a kiss in the Garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:14-47; Mk 14:10-46; Lk 22:3-48; Jn 18:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>Various suggestions have been offered to explain Judas’s traitorous deed. (1) In keeping with his patriotic zeal, Judas turned Jesus over to the authorities after realizing that his Master did not intend to overthrow the Roman order and establish a Jewish state. (2) Judas believed Jesus to be the Messiah and planned his arrest in hope of urging Jesus to usher in his kingdom. (3) He was a scoundrel who had plotted wickedness since the start of Jesus’ public ministry. (4) Prompted by a satanic impulse, Judas betrayed Jesus; however, after recognizing that he was deceived, out of remorse he took his own life. (5) With damaged pride and humiliated ego from Jesus’ caustic rebukes, Judas, originally a loyal disciple, turned against him. (6) Judas, moved by his own greed, yielded to his selfish instincts, not realizing that Jesus would consequently be tried and killed; upon learning the outcome of his betrayal, he repented in despair and committed suicide.<\/p>\n<p>Judas, despondent over his act of betrayal, went out and hung himself in a field bought with his 30 pieces of silver (Mt 27:3-10). Acts 1:18 gruesomely adds that his body burst open, spilling out his intestines; for this reason the field was called the “Field of Blood” (Acts 1:19). Matthias later took Judas Iscariot’s place among the Twelve (v 26).<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Joseph and Mary, and the brother of Jesus, James, Joseph, and Simon (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3). Evidently Judas and his brothers rejected Jesus as Messiah (Jn 7:5) until after his resurrection (Acts 1:14). Later, it is thought, Judas (English “Jude”) authored the epistle named Jude.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of James and one of the 12 disciples (Lk 6:16; Jn 14:22; Acts 1:13). He is identifiable with Thaddeus in Matthew 10:3 and Mark 3:18. <em>See<\/em> Thaddaeus, The Apostle.<\/li>\n<li>4. Galilean who led a Jewish revolt against the Romans because of the census taken by Quirinius in <span>AD<\/span> 6. In Acts 5:37 the Pharisee Gamaliel mentioned Judas as an example of one who unsuccessfully tried to gain the support of the Jewish people. Josephus credited him with founding the Jewish Zealot party, an extreme revolutionary movement that attempted to throw off Roman rule and to reestablish Jewish autonomy (<em>War<\/em> 2.8.1).<\/li>\n<li>5. Owner of a house along the street called Straight in Damascus. Here, following his conversion, Saul (Paul) found lodging and had his vision restored by Ananias (Acts 9:11).<\/li>\n<li>6. Prophet and leader in the early Jerusalem church. Judas, surnamed Barsabbas, was selected with Silas to accompany Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, where they confirmed the Jerusalem Council’s decision regarding the gentile church and subsequently encouraged its believers (Acts 15:22-32). <em>See<\/em> Joseph #12.<\/li>\n<li>7. KJV spelling of Judah, Jacob’s son (Mt 1:2-3). <em>See<\/em> Judah (Person) #1.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JUDAS 1. Simon’s son, surnamed Iscariot; one of the 12 disciples of Jesus. The derivation of Iscariot is uncertain. In all probability it designated the place of his birth, the town of Kerioth. His childhood home was perhaps Kerioth of Moab, east of the Jordan (Jer 48:24; Am 2:2), or Kerioth-hezron of southern Judah, also known as Hazor (Jos 15:25). A less feasible suggestion identifies Iscariot with an Aramaic word meaning “assassin,” a word eventually attached to Judas’s name because of his...","summary_en":"JUDAS 1. Simon’s son, surnamed Iscariot; one of the 12 disciples of Jesus. The derivation of Iscariot is uncertain. In all probability it designated the place of his birth, the town of Kerioth. His childhood home was perhaps Kerioth of Moab, east of the Jordan (Jer 48:24; Am 2:2), or Kerioth-hezron of southern Judah, also known as Hazor (Jos 15:25). A less feasible suggestion identifies Iscariot with an Aramaic word meaning “assassin,” a word eventually attached to Judas’s name because of his...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21632,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kerioth","title_en":"Kerioth","content_ro":"<h3>KERIOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Kerioth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KERIOTH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23).<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Kerioth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KERIOTH 1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23). 2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Keri...","summary_en":"KERIOTH 1. Town in the Negev of Judah (Jos 15:25), called Kerioth-hezron. The Hebrew text understands Kerioth and Hezron to be separate towns, the latter being identical to Hazor (v 23). 2. Town in Moab (Jer 48:24, 41; Am 2:2). From the Moabite Stone, it can be located in the southwest tableland of Moab opposite Ataroth. It is not counted among the towns of Reuben and Gad (Nm 34: Jos 13); in other lists it is absent while Ar is mentioned (Is 15–16), which leads scholars to equate Ar with Keri...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22172,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kirioth*","title_en":"Kirioth*","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIOTH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling of Kerioth, the Moabite city, in Amos 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Kerioth #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIOTH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV alternate spelling of Kerioth, the Moabite city, in Amos 2:2. <em>See<\/em> Kerioth #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIOTH* KJV alternate spelling of Kerioth, the Moabite city, in Amos 2:2. See Kerioth #2.","summary_en":"KIRIOTH* KJV alternate spelling of Kerioth, the Moabite city, in Amos 2:2. See Kerioth #2.","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53893,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","summary_en":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81519,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","summary_en":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109145,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","summary_en":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136771,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:2","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:2-3<\/strong> <em>Kerioth<\/em><em>,<\/em> a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the <em>king<\/em> of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 <span>BC<\/span>; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (<em>Antiquities<\/em> 10.9.7) implies a further destruction in 582 <span>BC<\/span> (see also Jer 48; Ezek 25:8-11; Zeph 2:8-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","summary_en":"2:2-3 Kerioth, a major town (Jer 48:20-24), is mentioned on the Moabite Stone as a shrine to Chemosh, Moab’s god. Perhaps the Moabites burned the remains of Edom’s king or offered him as a human sacrifice at this site. Because of the desecration of the Edomite king’s corpse, God would destroy the king of Moab and his officers. This fate probably came upon them through an invasion by Sargon II of Assyria (715\/713 BC; cp. Isa 15–16). Josephus (Antiquities 10.9.7) implies a further destruction i...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":1449,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53894,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","summary_en":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53895,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","summary_en":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81520,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","summary_en":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81521,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","summary_en":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109146,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","summary_en":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","summary_en":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136772,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4-5<\/strong> The southern kingdom of <em>Judah<\/em> was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","summary_en":"2:4-5 The southern kingdom of Judah was closest to the northern kingdom of Israel in blood ties and geography, but bitterness existed between the nations. The north regarded the descendants of David in the south as abusive kings who had caused the schism by their forced labor and heavy taxes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136773,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:4","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:4<\/strong> <em>rejected the instruction<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">torah<\/span>) <em>of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>:<\/em> The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • <em>led astray by the same lies:<\/em> Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncretism (the combining of elements from different belief systems) and idolatry (see 1 Kgs 14:22-24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","summary_en":"2:4 rejected the instruction (Hebrew torah) of the Lord: The pagan nations listed to this point had committed atrocities that violated a general sense of human decency, but Judah had gone further; they held the word of God and yet had rejected its teachings (see Hos 4:6; 8:1). God holds people responsible in proportion to the privilege they have received (see Amos 3:2). • led astray by the same lies: Having discarded God’s true instruction, Judah turned to a substitute found in pagan syncreti...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":53896,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","summary_en":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81522,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","summary_en":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","summary_en":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136774,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:5","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:5<\/strong> Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: <em>fire<\/em> (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","summary_en":"2:5 Judah’s paganism brought the same punishment as the sins of its pagan neighbors: fire (1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2) that would destroy Jerusalem. The Babylonians burned Jerusalem when they captured it in 586 BC (see 2 Kgs 25:9; Neh 2:17; 4:2).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":1120,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Alms","title_en":"Alms","content_ro":"<h3>ALMS<\/h3>\n<p>Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly and humanely. Important among them is Deuteronomy 15:7-11, which, while recognizing the inevitable existence of poverty, commands Israel to take alleviating action. Thus, every seventh year all fields and gardens were to remain unharvested for the benefit of the poor and disadvantaged (Ex 23:10-11). Every third year one-tenth of all produce had to be given to the Levites (a Hebrew tribe that had no property), the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 14:28-29). Forgotten sheaves and the gleanings from grain fields at each harvest were left for the needy and the stranger (Lv 19:9; 23:22); from every vineyard and olive grove, any fallen fruit and the imperfect and topmost clusters were reserved for them (Lv 19:10; Dt 24:20-21). Likewise, festival pilgrims were expected to share food with those in need (Dt 16:11-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>The OT prophets continued to champion the theme of benevolent treatment for the poor. The strongest expressions of the social justice theme are found in Isaiah (1:23; 3:15; 10:1-2; 11:4-5; 58:5-10) and Amos (2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4). Similarly, the Psalms and “Wisdom Literature” (Jb; Prv; Eccl) depict the plight of the poor, holding out hope to the afflicted and appealing to others to take up their cause or to improve their condition. The appeals were based on the conviction that all human beings are created by the one God, who had commanded Israel to deal with the unfortunate in their midst with a compassion that went beyond charity to justice.<\/p>\n<p>During the intertestamental period the giving of alms acquired more importance. The general command to show loving-kindness (cf. Lv 19:18) became defined as specific individual acts believed to contribute to personal merit and security. Thus, “almsgiving atones for sin” (Ecclus 3:30) and “delivers from death” (Tb 4:10). Along with prayer and fasting, almsgiving was elevated as one of the most important expressions of Jewish piety (Tb 12:8-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ALMS<\/h3>\n<p>Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly and humanely. Important among them is Deuteronomy 15:7-11, which, while recognizing the inevitable existence of poverty, commands Israel to take alleviating action. Thus, every seventh year all fields and gardens were to remain unharvested for the benefit of the poor and disadvantaged (Ex 23:10-11). Every third year one-tenth of all produce had to be given to the Levites (a Hebrew tribe that had no property), the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow (Dt 14:28-29). Forgotten sheaves and the gleanings from grain fields at each harvest were left for the needy and the stranger (Lv 19:9; 23:22); from every vineyard and olive grove, any fallen fruit and the imperfect and topmost clusters were reserved for them (Lv 19:10; Dt 24:20-21). Likewise, festival pilgrims were expected to share food with those in need (Dt 16:11-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>The OT prophets continued to champion the theme of benevolent treatment for the poor. The strongest expressions of the social justice theme are found in Isaiah (1:23; 3:15; 10:1-2; 11:4-5; 58:5-10) and Amos (2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4). Similarly, the Psalms and “Wisdom Literature” (Jb; Prv; Eccl) depict the plight of the poor, holding out hope to the afflicted and appealing to others to take up their cause or to improve their condition. The appeals were based on the conviction that all human beings are created by the one God, who had commanded Israel to deal with the unfortunate in their midst with a compassion that went beyond charity to justice.<\/p>\n<p>During the intertestamental period the giving of alms acquired more importance. The general command to show loving-kindness (cf. Lv 19:18) became defined as specific individual acts believed to contribute to personal merit and security. Thus, “almsgiving atones for sin” (Ecclus 3:30) and “delivers from death” (Tb 4:10). Along with prayer and fasting, almsgiving was elevated as one of the most important expressions of Jewish piety (Tb 12:8-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ALMS Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly...","summary_en":"ALMS Charitable gifts. The practice of giving alms to the poor. The English word “alms” comes from a longer Greek word used in the Septuagint (ancient Greek translation of the OT) to translate a Hebrew word for “righteousness.” The Hebrew term, in general, is unrelated to almsgiving; consequently the OT has no literal reference to almsgiving. Nevertheless, the Israelites were expected to care for the unfortunate in their midst. The Mosaic law contains many admonitions to treat the poor justly...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1470,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4142,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beggar","title_en":"Beggar","content_ro":"<h3>BEGGAR<\/h3>\n<p>One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. There were regulations such as the Sabbath year, the year of remission to those indebted (Lv 25). In that year the produce of the land was left to the poor and destitute (Ex 23:11), and all debts were canceled (Dt 15:1). The duty of lending liberally to the poor was promoted (vv 7-11), and hired laborers were protected (24:14-15). The purpose was that “there should be no more poor among you” (15:4). Indeed, in the early days of Israelite settlement, all Israelites enjoyed a comparable standard of living.<\/p>\n<p>In excavations at Tirsah near Nablus, the size and arrangements of houses of the tenth century <span>BC<\/span> are all about the same. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a striking contrast, with houses on the same site clearly divided into the town’s richer and poorer quarters. The social revolution between those two centuries was associated with the rise of the Israelite monarchy and growth of a class of officials who gained private profits from their positions. The prophets condemned the fact that wealth was ill-gotten and badly distributed in their day (e.g., Is 5:8; Hos 12:8; Am 8:4-7; Mi 2:2). The prophet Amos denounced creditors who felt no pity for the poor (Am 2:6-8; 8:6). Yet, throughout the OT, there is essentially no reference to beggars. During the intertestamental period, however, almsgiving became an important religious duty.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, begging seems to be prevalent. In the ministry of Jesus, references are made to a blind beggar (Jn 9:8-9), to blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-52), and to Lazarus, a godly beggar who is contrasted with a rich man (Lk 16:19-31). The apostles Peter and John encountered a crippled beggar by the “Beautiful,” or Nicanor, Gate in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1-11). Jesus rebuked an ostentatious show of almsgiving (Mt 6:1-4) but stressed the importance of giving to the poor from right motives (Mt 5:42-48). By the time of Jesus, Jerusalem had become a center for beggars, probably because almsgiving in the Holy City was then regarded as particularly meritorious. Begging in Jerusalem was concentrated around the holy places. The pool of Beth-zatha was a place of healing, and the sick, blind, lame, and paralyzed lay there to beg as well as to get into the waters for healing (Jn 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian community, the first organization of officers was made to provide for a fair distribution of funds to the poor (Acts 4:32-35; 6:1-6). On the first day of each week, some portion of each Christian’s income was to be allotted to the needy (11:27-30; Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4). Possibly the poverty of Palestine was made worse by heavy Roman taxation; tax gatherers as well as beggars are prominent in the Gospel narratives. It has also been suggested that the rise of the Zealots was closely associated with the social factor of poverty; the revolutionary Zealots were largely comprised of society’s “dregs,” according to the Jewish historian Josephus. In <span>AD<\/span> 66 the Zealots burned the Jerusalem archives, no doubt intending to destroy the records of their debts kept there. Josephus reports that before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, gangs of beggars were terrorizing the whole city. <em>See<\/em> Alms; Poor, The.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEGGAR<\/h3>\n<p>One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant.<\/p>\n<p>Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. There were regulations such as the Sabbath year, the year of remission to those indebted (Lv 25). In that year the produce of the land was left to the poor and destitute (Ex 23:11), and all debts were canceled (Dt 15:1). The duty of lending liberally to the poor was promoted (vv 7-11), and hired laborers were protected (24:14-15). The purpose was that “there should be no more poor among you” (15:4). Indeed, in the early days of Israelite settlement, all Israelites enjoyed a comparable standard of living.<\/p>\n<p>In excavations at Tirsah near Nablus, the size and arrangements of houses of the tenth century <span>BC<\/span> are all about the same. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, there is a striking contrast, with houses on the same site clearly divided into the town’s richer and poorer quarters. The social revolution between those two centuries was associated with the rise of the Israelite monarchy and growth of a class of officials who gained private profits from their positions. The prophets condemned the fact that wealth was ill-gotten and badly distributed in their day (e.g., Is 5:8; Hos 12:8; Am 8:4-7; Mi 2:2). The prophet Amos denounced creditors who felt no pity for the poor (Am 2:6-8; 8:6). Yet, throughout the OT, there is essentially no reference to beggars. During the intertestamental period, however, almsgiving became an important religious duty.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, begging seems to be prevalent. In the ministry of Jesus, references are made to a blind beggar (Jn 9:8-9), to blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-52), and to Lazarus, a godly beggar who is contrasted with a rich man (Lk 16:19-31). The apostles Peter and John encountered a crippled beggar by the “Beautiful,” or Nicanor, Gate in Jerusalem (Acts 3:1-11). Jesus rebuked an ostentatious show of almsgiving (Mt 6:1-4) but stressed the importance of giving to the poor from right motives (Mt 5:42-48). By the time of Jesus, Jerusalem had become a center for beggars, probably because almsgiving in the Holy City was then regarded as particularly meritorious. Begging in Jerusalem was concentrated around the holy places. The pool of Beth-zatha was a place of healing, and the sick, blind, lame, and paralyzed lay there to beg as well as to get into the waters for healing (Jn 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian community, the first organization of officers was made to provide for a fair distribution of funds to the poor (Acts 4:32-35; 6:1-6). On the first day of each week, some portion of each Christian’s income was to be allotted to the needy (11:27-30; Rom 15:25-27; 1 Cor 16:1-4). Possibly the poverty of Palestine was made worse by heavy Roman taxation; tax gatherers as well as beggars are prominent in the Gospel narratives. It has also been suggested that the rise of the Zealots was closely associated with the social factor of poverty; the revolutionary Zealots were largely comprised of society’s “dregs,” according to the Jewish historian Josephus. In <span>AD<\/span> 66 the Zealots burned the Jerusalem archives, no doubt intending to destroy the records of their debts kept there. Josephus reports that before the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, gangs of beggars were terrorizing the whole city. <em>See<\/em> Alms; Poor, The.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEGGAR One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant. Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor. Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. T...","summary_en":"BEGGAR One who asks for charity, especially one who lives by begging, a mendicant. Biblical references to begging are limited to such Hebrew verbs as “to seek” or “to ask,” and, as a noun, to “the poor and needy”; in the NT, Greek terms refer to being “poor” or “miserable,” and to those who “ask for more.” Professional beggars were unknown in Moses’ time, since the law made ample provision for taking care of the poor. Earliest legislation (Dt 15:11) mandated the care of those who were poor. T...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25877,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27276,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Neighbor","title_en":"Neighbor","content_ro":"<h3>NEIGHBOR<\/h3>\n<p>Concept apparently limited in the OT period and late Judaism to one’s fellow Israelite, or member of the covenant, and extended by Jesus to include anyone encountered in life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although it is never explicitly limited as such, the prominent connotation of “neighbor” in the OT is that of a fellow member of the covenant community; that is, another Israelite (see Lv 6:1-7; 19; Dt 15:2-3). In Leviticus 19:18, a passage often quoted in the NT, the Israelite is commanded to “love your neighbor as yourself.” In 19:34, it is explicitly stated that such love should also be shown to the foreigner (or “sojourner”) passing through the land. If “neighbor” (v 18) implied a more encompassing notion, such as “mankind” or “fellow man,” there presumably would have been no need to include the further stipulation in verse 34. “Neighbor” was therefore probably taken to mean one’s immediate neighbor, the fellow Israelite.<\/p>\n<p>Within the covenant community, love of neighbor involved certain responsibilities explicitly set forth in the law. The neighbor was to be treated fairly (Ex 22:5-15; Lv 6:2-7; 19:9-18) and respected (Ex 20:16), as were his belongings (Ex 20:17). To foster such just and merciful relationships within the covenant community, the neighbor was to be thought of as a “brother” (Lv 25:25; Dt 22:1-4). What one did to one’s neighbor was to be returned in kind (Lv 24:19-23; Dt 19:11-19).<\/p>\n<p>The grave importance attached to treatment of the neighbor is understandable when seen as part of one’s wider relationship with God and was considered something that could affect significantly the divine-human relationship (Lv 6:1-7; 19; 25:17; Dt 24:10-13; Ps 12). Israelites were to treat their neighbors in the same loving way they had themselves been treated by God (Ex 22:21; Lv 25:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the neighbor relationship within the covenant community is also demonstrated by the fact that when such responsibilities were ignored, a societal breakdown or national turmoil followed (Dt 28:15-68; Hos 4:1-3; Am 2:6-7). That the Israelites often did neglect love for neighbor, particularly the neighbor in need, is a contributing cause for the divine punishment of the exile (Jer 5:7-9; 7:1-15; 9:2-9; Hos 4:1-3; Am 2:6-7; 5:10-13; 8:4-6). The mere fact that proper love of neighbor was also part of Israel’s hope for the messianic age to come (Jer 31:34; Zec 3:10) also points to its common neglect within the OT covenant community.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InLateJudaism\">In Late Judaism<\/p>\n<p>From the exilic experience, Israel recognized that divine blessing was conditional somewhat on justice and love exercised toward one another (Zec 8:14-17). The identity of the “neighbor” was debatable, however. Several factors suggest that “neighbor” was limited in this period to the fellow Israelite and the proselyte (gentile convert to Judaism). Evidence from rabbinic material excludes Samaritans and the Gentiles living in the land from being considered “neighbors” and thus worthy of love. Within the Jewish Essene community at Qumran, the “neighbor” to be respected and treated fairly was restricted to one’s fellow community members. Finally, when Jesus recalls, “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy’” (Mt 5:43), he is quoting only partially from the OT (Lv 19:18—“You shall love your neighbor”). The last phrase (“and hate your enemy”) reflects the contemporary Jewish feeling toward outsiders; that is, God did not require love toward those considered “enemies” but only toward fellow countrymen.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jesus differed dramatically from his Jewish contemporaries by eradicating the limitations on the neighbor to be loved. In contrast to those who would limit love to one’s fellow countrymen, Jesus advocated extending the obligation reserved for the neighbor to the enemy as well (Mt 5:43-48), and in so doing, he destroyed the distinction between neighbor and enemy altogether.<\/p>\n<p>On another occasion, a scribe asked Jesus what was the greatest commandment given by God (Mk 12:28-31). In response, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 concerning the nature of God and man’s obligation to love God with his entire being: heart, soul, and mind. Of significance is that Jesus did not stop there but linked with this a second commandment to “love your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18). Some scholars suggest that this dramatic and close association of love of God and love of neighbor originated with Jesus. If Jesus was the first to tie these commands together (see Mt 22:37; Mk 12:29-31), it reveals our Lord’s own understanding of the relation of these two obligations; proper love for neighbor derives from love for God, and conversely, love for God is inseparable from meeting the needs of a neighbor in love.<\/p>\n<p>The debate in Jesus’ time was not over how to properly treat a neighbor but who, in fact, was the neighbor. Jesus is asked this very question by an expert of the law (Lk 10:29). Jesus had complimented the lawyer for his clear understanding of what was required to inherit eternal life, namely, love of God and love of neighbor. Luke suggests that the lawyer asked the further qualifying question in order to “justify himself,” that is, justify his actual behavior of limited love toward his fellow man. Jesus chose not to respond directly but through the use of a parable, in this case, the familiar parable of the Good Samaritan (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>In order to open the lawyer’s eyes to the tragic shortsightedness of his question, Jesus related an everyday story of a man traveling the treacherous road from Jerusalem down to Jericho, a road particularly plagued by robbers. The traveler is robbed, stripped, beaten, and left half dead. To this point, the lawyer might have assumed Jesus was offering an example of who constitutes a “neighbor”—a fellow Jew in need. Jesus proceeds, however, to introduce two figures, a priest and a Levite who, in an academic discussion, could have argued quite ably on who is the neighbor God calls one to love. The lawyer would no doubt have anticipated such experts in the law to act rightly toward the victim. In contrast, the priest and Levite, upon seeing the man in need, respond by “passing by on the other side.” Unable to determine whether the victim was dead or barely alive, and possibly not wanting to risk uncleanness, the experts of the law pass by, thus violating the greatest of the commandments just identified by the lawyer (10:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Enter a Samaritan—a figure especially despised by the Jews. Viewed as heretics by the Jewish religious authorities, the Samaritans were disqualified in rabbinic circles from being considered a “neighbor” and thus worthy of love. In fact, previous centuries had witnessed the slaughter of many Samaritans by Jewish rulers, and animosity clearly existed between the two peoples (see Jn 4:9). While the lawyer listening to the parable would have expected the priest and Levite to act justly toward the victim, he must have been surprised that a hated Samaritan would show compassion and thus fulfill the greatest commandment. Jesus intentionally spelled out the extent of the Samaritan’s compassion (immediate care in dressing wounds, transport to the inn, care for the victim there and extended care in paying for care by others while he is away, Lk 10:34-35) to such a degree that the lawyer would have no doubt as to the genuineness of the Samaritan’s love. The irony of the story is that one not considered worthy to be called “neighbor” by Jews was precisely the one who showed himself to be “neighbor” to the victim (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>The parable, like the statement in Matthew 5:43-48, reveals Jesus’ own understanding of “neighbor” and what “love of neighbor” demands. Jesus sets no limitation on who qualifies as the neighbor commanded by God to be loved.<\/p>\n<p>The forcefulness and power of Jesus’ teachings on the love of neighbor and its relationship to one’s love for God are demonstrated by a similar emphasis within the early church. Paul on two occasions called the love of neighbor the fulfillment of the entire law (Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:14), while James referred to the same commandment as “the royal law” (Jas 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEIGHBOR<\/h3>\n<p>Concept apparently limited in the OT period and late Judaism to one’s fellow Israelite, or member of the covenant, and extended by Jesus to include anyone encountered in life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Although it is never explicitly limited as such, the prominent connotation of “neighbor” in the OT is that of a fellow member of the covenant community; that is, another Israelite (see Lv 6:1-7; 19; Dt 15:2-3). In Leviticus 19:18, a passage often quoted in the NT, the Israelite is commanded to “love your neighbor as yourself.” In 19:34, it is explicitly stated that such love should also be shown to the foreigner (or “sojourner”) passing through the land. If “neighbor” (v 18) implied a more encompassing notion, such as “mankind” or “fellow man,” there presumably would have been no need to include the further stipulation in verse 34. “Neighbor” was therefore probably taken to mean one’s immediate neighbor, the fellow Israelite.<\/p>\n<p>Within the covenant community, love of neighbor involved certain responsibilities explicitly set forth in the law. The neighbor was to be treated fairly (Ex 22:5-15; Lv 6:2-7; 19:9-18) and respected (Ex 20:16), as were his belongings (Ex 20:17). To foster such just and merciful relationships within the covenant community, the neighbor was to be thought of as a “brother” (Lv 25:25; Dt 22:1-4). What one did to one’s neighbor was to be returned in kind (Lv 24:19-23; Dt 19:11-19).<\/p>\n<p>The grave importance attached to treatment of the neighbor is understandable when seen as part of one’s wider relationship with God and was considered something that could affect significantly the divine-human relationship (Lv 6:1-7; 19; 25:17; Dt 24:10-13; Ps 12). Israelites were to treat their neighbors in the same loving way they had themselves been treated by God (Ex 22:21; Lv 25:35-38).<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the neighbor relationship within the covenant community is also demonstrated by the fact that when such responsibilities were ignored, a societal breakdown or national turmoil followed (Dt 28:15-68; Hos 4:1-3; Am 2:6-7). That the Israelites often did neglect love for neighbor, particularly the neighbor in need, is a contributing cause for the divine punishment of the exile (Jer 5:7-9; 7:1-15; 9:2-9; Hos 4:1-3; Am 2:6-7; 5:10-13; 8:4-6). The mere fact that proper love of neighbor was also part of Israel’s hope for the messianic age to come (Jer 31:34; Zec 3:10) also points to its common neglect within the OT covenant community.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InLateJudaism\">In Late Judaism<\/p>\n<p>From the exilic experience, Israel recognized that divine blessing was conditional somewhat on justice and love exercised toward one another (Zec 8:14-17). The identity of the “neighbor” was debatable, however. Several factors suggest that “neighbor” was limited in this period to the fellow Israelite and the proselyte (gentile convert to Judaism). Evidence from rabbinic material excludes Samaritans and the Gentiles living in the land from being considered “neighbors” and thus worthy of love. Within the Jewish Essene community at Qumran, the “neighbor” to be respected and treated fairly was restricted to one’s fellow community members. Finally, when Jesus recalls, “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy’” (Mt 5:43), he is quoting only partially from the OT (Lv 19:18—“You shall love your neighbor”). The last phrase (“and hate your enemy”) reflects the contemporary Jewish feeling toward outsiders; that is, God did not require love toward those considered “enemies” but only toward fellow countrymen.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jesus differed dramatically from his Jewish contemporaries by eradicating the limitations on the neighbor to be loved. In contrast to those who would limit love to one’s fellow countrymen, Jesus advocated extending the obligation reserved for the neighbor to the enemy as well (Mt 5:43-48), and in so doing, he destroyed the distinction between neighbor and enemy altogether.<\/p>\n<p>On another occasion, a scribe asked Jesus what was the greatest commandment given by God (Mk 12:28-31). In response, Jesus cited Deuteronomy 6:5 concerning the nature of God and man’s obligation to love God with his entire being: heart, soul, and mind. Of significance is that Jesus did not stop there but linked with this a second commandment to “love your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18). Some scholars suggest that this dramatic and close association of love of God and love of neighbor originated with Jesus. If Jesus was the first to tie these commands together (see Mt 22:37; Mk 12:29-31), it reveals our Lord’s own understanding of the relation of these two obligations; proper love for neighbor derives from love for God, and conversely, love for God is inseparable from meeting the needs of a neighbor in love.<\/p>\n<p>The debate in Jesus’ time was not over how to properly treat a neighbor but who, in fact, was the neighbor. Jesus is asked this very question by an expert of the law (Lk 10:29). Jesus had complimented the lawyer for his clear understanding of what was required to inherit eternal life, namely, love of God and love of neighbor. Luke suggests that the lawyer asked the further qualifying question in order to “justify himself,” that is, justify his actual behavior of limited love toward his fellow man. Jesus chose not to respond directly but through the use of a parable, in this case, the familiar parable of the Good Samaritan (vv 30-35).<\/p>\n<p>In order to open the lawyer’s eyes to the tragic shortsightedness of his question, Jesus related an everyday story of a man traveling the treacherous road from Jerusalem down to Jericho, a road particularly plagued by robbers. The traveler is robbed, stripped, beaten, and left half dead. To this point, the lawyer might have assumed Jesus was offering an example of who constitutes a “neighbor”—a fellow Jew in need. Jesus proceeds, however, to introduce two figures, a priest and a Levite who, in an academic discussion, could have argued quite ably on who is the neighbor God calls one to love. The lawyer would no doubt have anticipated such experts in the law to act rightly toward the victim. In contrast, the priest and Levite, upon seeing the man in need, respond by “passing by on the other side.” Unable to determine whether the victim was dead or barely alive, and possibly not wanting to risk uncleanness, the experts of the law pass by, thus violating the greatest of the commandments just identified by the lawyer (10:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Enter a Samaritan—a figure especially despised by the Jews. Viewed as heretics by the Jewish religious authorities, the Samaritans were disqualified in rabbinic circles from being considered a “neighbor” and thus worthy of love. In fact, previous centuries had witnessed the slaughter of many Samaritans by Jewish rulers, and animosity clearly existed between the two peoples (see Jn 4:9). While the lawyer listening to the parable would have expected the priest and Levite to act justly toward the victim, he must have been surprised that a hated Samaritan would show compassion and thus fulfill the greatest commandment. Jesus intentionally spelled out the extent of the Samaritan’s compassion (immediate care in dressing wounds, transport to the inn, care for the victim there and extended care in paying for care by others while he is away, Lk 10:34-35) to such a degree that the lawyer would have no doubt as to the genuineness of the Samaritan’s love. The irony of the story is that one not considered worthy to be called “neighbor” by Jews was precisely the one who showed himself to be “neighbor” to the victim (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>The parable, like the statement in Matthew 5:43-48, reveals Jesus’ own understanding of “neighbor” and what “love of neighbor” demands. Jesus sets no limitation on who qualifies as the neighbor commanded by God to be loved.<\/p>\n<p>The forcefulness and power of Jesus’ teachings on the love of neighbor and its relationship to one’s love for God are demonstrated by a similar emphasis within the early church. Paul on two occasions called the love of neighbor the fulfillment of the entire law (Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:14), while James referred to the same commandment as “the royal law” (Jas 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEIGHBOR Concept apparently limited in the OT period and late Judaism to one’s fellow Israelite, or member of the covenant, and extended by Jesus to include anyone encountered in life. In the Old Testament Although it is never explicitly limited as such, the prominent connotation of “neighbor” in the OT is that of a fellow member of the covenant community; that is, another Israelite (see Lv 6:1-7; 19; Dt 15:2-3). In Leviticus 19:18, a passage often quoted in the NT, the Israelite is commanded...","summary_en":"NEIGHBOR Concept apparently limited in the OT period and late Judaism to one’s fellow Israelite, or member of the covenant, and extended by Jesus to include anyone encountered in life. In the Old Testament Although it is never explicitly limited as such, the prominent connotation of “neighbor” in the OT is that of a fellow member of the covenant community; that is, another Israelite (see Lv 6:1-7; 19; Dt 15:2-3). In Leviticus 19:18, a passage often quoted in the NT, the Israelite is commanded...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31527,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53897,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","summary_en":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53898,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","summary_en":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81523,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","summary_en":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81524,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","summary_en":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","summary_en":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","summary_en":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136775,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6-16<\/strong> <em>Israel:<\/em> After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","summary_en":"2:6-16 Israel: After leading the people through a litany of sins committed by Israel’s neighbors, Amos arrived at his real point: The Israelites would suffer a similar fate (cp. Nathan’s use of prophetic rhetoric to induce self-indictment, 2 Sam 12:1-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136776,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>Honorable people<\/em> are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with <em>poor people<\/em> creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for <em>a pair of sandals<\/em><em>,<\/em> a hyperbole for the pittance they owed (see Amos 8:6). The sandals were a pledge given for the debt or a token used to seal a bargain (see Ruth 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","summary_en":"2:6 Honorable people are the “righteous,” those who enjoyed a right relationship with God and other people. The parallel with poor people creates the idea of the “righteous needy.” The law of Moses urged those who had much to help those in need by lending freely (Deut 15:7-11). As a last resort, those too poor to pay their debts could become bond servants to repay their debts through labor (Lev 25:39-43). These righteous needy were being sold into bond servitude for a pair of sandals, a hyper...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60502,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60838,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64626,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88128,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88464,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92252,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115754,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116090,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119878,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143380,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143716,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"True Justice","title_en":"True Justice","content_ro":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>True Justice<\/h3>\n<p>The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them?<\/p>\n<p>Every society has social structures that separate the powerful from the weak and the privileged from the ill-favored. This was true of Old Testament Israel despite its unique constitution and commission as a “holy nation” (Exod 19:6). Judges and other officials charged with upholding the law might tend to favor individuals with financial means, high social standing, or community influence, especially when these individuals offer bribes (Deut 16:19). However, God cannot be bribed, nor does he show partiality (10:17). The rich and the poor, the powerful and the weak, the exalted and the downtrodden are all alike to him.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets of Israel understood the need for equity and justice and often called for the application of these principles to community and national life (Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 59:14-19; Ezek 22:23-29; Amos 2:6-8; Hab 1:4). The New Testament also appeals for proper treatment of the poor and disadvantaged and speaks of God’s displeasure when they are neglected (Matt 23:23; 2 Cor 9:6-10; Jas 2:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Justice that falls short of God’s standard is not true justice, and those responsible for corrupting justice can expect full retribution from the Judge of all the earth (see Deut 25:13-16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17-19; 16:19; 24:12-22; 25:13-16; 27:19; Ps 82:1-5; Prov 11:1; Isa 1:17; 10:1-4; 11:3-4; 59:14-19; Jer 22:13-17; Ezek 22:23-29; 45:9-10; Amos 2:6-8; 8:5-6; Hab 1:4; Matt 23:23; Luke 18:6-8; Jas 2:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","summary_en":"True Justice The community of God’s people in Old Testament Israel was to be responsible for the well-being of widows, orphans, and foreigners (Deut 27:19). The Israelites were to represent the just God whom they served (see 10:17-19) and always remember that they had been an enslaved and defenseless people in Egypt (see 10:19; 24:18-22). How could they, the beneficiaries of God’s unfailing love and faithfulness, ignore the rights and needs of the most vulnerable who lived among them? Every s...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147504,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":53899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","summary_en":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","summary_en":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","summary_en":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136777,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> To <em>trample . . . people<\/em> was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The <em>helpless<\/em> and <em>oppressed<\/em> were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That <em>father and son sleep with the same woman<\/em> demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • <em>corrupting my holy name:<\/em> In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacred prostitution” (see Hos 4:10-14). Sexual relations with a shrine prostitute were thought to ensure plentiful crops and thriving herds of livestock. This verse suggests that these acts were performed in the name of the Lord. When performed as religious rituals, these corrupt actions treat God’s name as worthless.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","summary_en":"2:7 To trample . . . people was to treat them ruthlessly (see also 8:4). • The helpless and oppressed were people exploited by a socio-economic system that denied them the justice guaranteed by law (Exod 23:6-8). • That father and son sleep with the same woman demonstrated the moral destitution of the Israelites; the law of Moses prohibited this practice (Lev 18:7-8, 15; 20:11-12). • corrupting my holy name: In worshiping various fertility gods, Israel and surrounding nations engaged in “sacr...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":1472,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","summary_en":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","summary_en":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","summary_en":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:8","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:8<\/strong> The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at <em>religious festivals<\/em>. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as <em>security<\/em> for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s <em>clothing<\/em> was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • <em>unjust fines:<\/em> The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing (Amos 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","summary_en":"2:8 The irony is that the oppressors of the poor flaunted their sins at religious festivals. • The Torah allowed a lender to take a poor man’s cloak as security for a debt, but it was not to be kept overnight, because the nights were cold (Exod 22:26-27; Deut 24:12-13). A widow’s clothing was never to be taken as security for a debt (Deut 24:17). • unjust fines: The wealthy bribed judges and used their influence to keep the poor, who could not defend themselves, from obtaining a fair hearing ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":1430,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amorites","title_en":"Amorites","content_ro":"<h3>AMORITES<\/h3>\n<p>Semitic people found throughout the Fertile Crescent of the Near East at the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Amorites are first mentioned in the Bible as descendants of Canaan in a list of ancient peoples (Gn 10:16; cf. 1 Chr 1:13-16). Some of these nomadic people seem to have migrated from the Syrian Desert into Mesopotamia, others into Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Akkadian cuneiform inscriptions mention a relatively uncivilized people called <em>Amurru<\/em> (translation of the Sumerian <em>Mar-tu<\/em>), perhaps named for a storm god. They overran the Sumerians and eventually most of Mesopotamia. The city of Mari, on the upper Euphrates River, fell to them about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; Eshunna a short time later; Babylon by 1830 <span>BC<\/span>; and finally Assur around 1750 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Farther to the west, Amorites had been in Palestine and Syria as early as the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Egyptian texts of the early part of the 19th century <span>BC<\/span> show that additional waves of Amorite nomads were entering Canaan at that time. Many of their names are similar to the Amorite names from upper Mesopotamia. In fact, many names from the Mari tablets are identical with or similar to names in the patriarchal accounts in Genesis. People named Jacob, Abraham, Levi, and Ishmael were known at Mari, and names similar to Gad and Dan have been found there. Benjamin was known as the name of a tribe. Nahor was found to be the name of a city near Haran. According to Genesis, Abraham lived in Haran many years before going to Canaan. Jacob spent 20 years there and married two women from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Amorites appear prominently in the OT as major obstacles to the occupation of Canaan (the Promised Land) by the Israelites after the exodus. Calling Moses to lead Israel out of Egypt, the Lord spoke of Canaan, then occupied by Amorites and others, as a good land (Ex 3:8, 17; 13:5). When the Israelites were in the wilderness, God promised to destroy those nations (Ex 23:23) and drive them out of the land (Ex 33:2). The Hebrew people were warned not to make covenants with any of them, to intermarry with them, or to tolerate their idol worship (Ex 34:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>Spies sent into the land found Amalekites in the south; Hittites, Jebusites, and Amorites in the northern mountains and to the west of the Jordan River; and Canaanites by the sea and along the Jordan (Nm 13:25-29). At that time there were Amorites east of the Jordan as well (Nm 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>God had instructed Israel to go up from Horeb and conquer the mountain Amorites on the west side of the Jordan all the way to the Mediterranean Sea (Dt 1:7). When they arrived at Kadesh-barnea they were at the foot of those mountains (Dt 1:19-20). But the people murmured and complained that God had brought them from Egypt only to be slaughtered by the Amorites. From the spies’ reports, they pictured the Amorites as an awesome people, greater and taller than the Israelites (Dt 1:26-28). At first they refused to trust God enough to go in, so God told them to turn around and head back into the wilderness. Then they changed their minds, stubbornly attacked the Amorites against God’s command, and were badly beaten (Dt 1:34-44). Finally, after 38 additional years in the wilderness, the Israelites once again faced the Amorites, but this time on the east side of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:13). The Amorite king, Sihon, refused to let them pass through his land. The Israelites were drawn up at the Arnon River, which flows into the Dead Sea about two-thirds of the way up its eastern shore.<\/p>\n<p>Transjordan was controlled by two Amorite kings, Sihon and Og. Israel had to face Sihon first. His city, Heshbon, lay due east of the north end of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:21-26). Sihon himself had taken this land from the Moabites. Moses knew of Sihon’s reputation and quoted a poem that boasted of Sihon’s victory over Moab (Nm 21:27-30). Nevertheless, the Israelites defeated Sihon and devastated his kingdom from Dibon, four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of the Arnon, to Medeba, seven miles (11.2 kilometers) south of Heshbon. King Og, farther to the north, received the same treatment (Nm 21:31-35). King Balak of Moab heard of the Israelite victories and was terrified (Nm 22:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the people that by relying on God’s promises they had taken all of the land of the Amorites east of the Jordan (Dt 2:24–3:10). The conquered territory was given to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Nm 32:33). Then, 40 years after the exodus began, Israel was standing on the east side of the Jordan, having dispossessed the two great Amorite nations there (Dt 1:1-4). But there were other Amorite kingdoms in the hills west of the Jordan, along with other nations (Dt 7:1-2). They were to be destroyed in the same way Sihon and Og had been defeated (Dt 31:3-6).<\/p>\n<p>So famous was the victory of Israel east of the Jordan that Rahab and others in Jericho, west of the Jordan, knew of it and were frightened (Jos 2:8-11). The Israelites crossed the Jordan and took Jericho but were defeated at the smaller city of Ai in the hill country west of Jericho. They immediately assumed that they would be wiped out by the Amorites in those hills (Jos 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites regained God’s favor, however, and defeated Ai. Their victory made an impression on the other kingdoms west of the Jordan in the hills, valleys, and coastlands up to Lebanon, who allied to fight Joshua (Jos 9:1-2). Gibeon, an Amorite city seven miles (11.2 kilometers) southwest of Ai, made peace with Israel, putting more fear in the hearts of the remaining kings (Jos 10:1-2). Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, was evidently the leader of the Amorite kings west of the Jordan (Jos 10:3). Jerusalem was only eight miles (12.8 kilometers) southeast of Gibeon. Adoni-zedek called together the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, all within 50 miles (80.4 kilometers) of Jerusalem, to fight against Gibeon and Joshua (Jos 10:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua came to Gibeon’s defense and routed the Amorites, chasing them to the northwest and southwest. The Lord fought for Israel, raining hailstones on the Amorites at Azekah, southwest of Gibeon, and causing the sun to stand still in order to provide a longer battle day (Jos 10:6-14).<\/p>\n<p>In the far north, Jabin, king of Hazor, rallied the Canaanites and remaining Amorites all the way north to Mt Hermon (Jos 11:1-5). But they too were overcome (Jos 11:10-23). Toward the end of Joshua’s career, he reminded the people that it was the Lord who had given them the land of the Amorites (Jos 24:1-18).<\/p>\n<p>After the occupation of Canaan by Israel, Amorites still present in the land chased Dan’s tribe into the mountains and continued to live near Aijalon, 17 miles (27.4 kilometers) west of Jerusalem. They still held the slopes toward the south end of the Dead Sea as well (Jgs 1:34-36). In the period of the judges, the Amorites and their gods posed a constant threat to Israel’s well-being (Jgs 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the period of the judges, relations between Israel and the Amorites improved (1 Sm 7:14). David continued to honor Joshua’s treaty with the Amorite remnant of Gibeon (2 Sm 21:2-6). Solomon conscripted his labor forces from the Amorites and other peoples still surviving from Israelite conquest (1 Kgs 9:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The OT treats the deliverance of the Amorites and their land into the hands of Israel as a great event comparable with the exodus itself, a victory to be remembered and celebrated (Pss 135:9-12; 136:13-26). If the people forgot, the Lord reminded them through his prophets (Am 2:9-10). Long after Sihon and Og had been defeated, the area east of the Jordan was still remembered as the land of “Sihon king of the Amorites” (1 Kgs 4:19). When the kings of Israel and Judah began to fail God, the memory of the Amorites provided a standard of comparison of evil. The Jews’ continuing fascination with idolatry led God to address Jerusalem, representing the Jewish people, through the prophet Ezekiel: “Your mother was a Hittite and your father an Amorite” (Ez 16:45). In the biblical view, the Amorites stood for everything that is abominable in the sight of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMORITES<\/h3>\n<p>Semitic people found throughout the Fertile Crescent of the Near East at the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Amorites are first mentioned in the Bible as descendants of Canaan in a list of ancient peoples (Gn 10:16; cf. 1 Chr 1:13-16). Some of these nomadic people seem to have migrated from the Syrian Desert into Mesopotamia, others into Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>Akkadian cuneiform inscriptions mention a relatively uncivilized people called <em>Amurru<\/em> (translation of the Sumerian <em>Mar-tu<\/em>), perhaps named for a storm god. They overran the Sumerians and eventually most of Mesopotamia. The city of Mari, on the upper Euphrates River, fell to them about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; Eshunna a short time later; Babylon by 1830 <span>BC<\/span>; and finally Assur around 1750 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Farther to the west, Amorites had been in Palestine and Syria as early as the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Egyptian texts of the early part of the 19th century <span>BC<\/span> show that additional waves of Amorite nomads were entering Canaan at that time. Many of their names are similar to the Amorite names from upper Mesopotamia. In fact, many names from the Mari tablets are identical with or similar to names in the patriarchal accounts in Genesis. People named Jacob, Abraham, Levi, and Ishmael were known at Mari, and names similar to Gad and Dan have been found there. Benjamin was known as the name of a tribe. Nahor was found to be the name of a city near Haran. According to Genesis, Abraham lived in Haran many years before going to Canaan. Jacob spent 20 years there and married two women from Haran.<\/p>\n<p>Amorites appear prominently in the OT as major obstacles to the occupation of Canaan (the Promised Land) by the Israelites after the exodus. Calling Moses to lead Israel out of Egypt, the Lord spoke of Canaan, then occupied by Amorites and others, as a good land (Ex 3:8, 17; 13:5). When the Israelites were in the wilderness, God promised to destroy those nations (Ex 23:23) and drive them out of the land (Ex 33:2). The Hebrew people were warned not to make covenants with any of them, to intermarry with them, or to tolerate their idol worship (Ex 34:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>Spies sent into the land found Amalekites in the south; Hittites, Jebusites, and Amorites in the northern mountains and to the west of the Jordan River; and Canaanites by the sea and along the Jordan (Nm 13:25-29). At that time there were Amorites east of the Jordan as well (Nm 21:13).<\/p>\n<p>God had instructed Israel to go up from Horeb and conquer the mountain Amorites on the west side of the Jordan all the way to the Mediterranean Sea (Dt 1:7). When they arrived at Kadesh-barnea they were at the foot of those mountains (Dt 1:19-20). But the people murmured and complained that God had brought them from Egypt only to be slaughtered by the Amorites. From the spies’ reports, they pictured the Amorites as an awesome people, greater and taller than the Israelites (Dt 1:26-28). At first they refused to trust God enough to go in, so God told them to turn around and head back into the wilderness. Then they changed their minds, stubbornly attacked the Amorites against God’s command, and were badly beaten (Dt 1:34-44). Finally, after 38 additional years in the wilderness, the Israelites once again faced the Amorites, but this time on the east side of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:13). The Amorite king, Sihon, refused to let them pass through his land. The Israelites were drawn up at the Arnon River, which flows into the Dead Sea about two-thirds of the way up its eastern shore.<\/p>\n<p>Transjordan was controlled by two Amorite kings, Sihon and Og. Israel had to face Sihon first. His city, Heshbon, lay due east of the north end of the Dead Sea (Nm 21:21-26). Sihon himself had taken this land from the Moabites. Moses knew of Sihon’s reputation and quoted a poem that boasted of Sihon’s victory over Moab (Nm 21:27-30). Nevertheless, the Israelites defeated Sihon and devastated his kingdom from Dibon, four miles (6.4 kilometers) north of the Arnon, to Medeba, seven miles (11.2 kilometers) south of Heshbon. King Og, farther to the north, received the same treatment (Nm 21:31-35). King Balak of Moab heard of the Israelite victories and was terrified (Nm 22:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the people that by relying on God’s promises they had taken all of the land of the Amorites east of the Jordan (Dt 2:24–3:10). The conquered territory was given to the tribes of Gad and Reuben and to the half-tribe of Manasseh (Nm 32:33). Then, 40 years after the exodus began, Israel was standing on the east side of the Jordan, having dispossessed the two great Amorite nations there (Dt 1:1-4). But there were other Amorite kingdoms in the hills west of the Jordan, along with other nations (Dt 7:1-2). They were to be destroyed in the same way Sihon and Og had been defeated (Dt 31:3-6).<\/p>\n<p>So famous was the victory of Israel east of the Jordan that Rahab and others in Jericho, west of the Jordan, knew of it and were frightened (Jos 2:8-11). The Israelites crossed the Jordan and took Jericho but were defeated at the smaller city of Ai in the hill country west of Jericho. They immediately assumed that they would be wiped out by the Amorites in those hills (Jos 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites regained God’s favor, however, and defeated Ai. Their victory made an impression on the other kingdoms west of the Jordan in the hills, valleys, and coastlands up to Lebanon, who allied to fight Joshua (Jos 9:1-2). Gibeon, an Amorite city seven miles (11.2 kilometers) southwest of Ai, made peace with Israel, putting more fear in the hearts of the remaining kings (Jos 10:1-2). Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, was evidently the leader of the Amorite kings west of the Jordan (Jos 10:3). Jerusalem was only eight miles (12.8 kilometers) southeast of Gibeon. Adoni-zedek called together the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, all within 50 miles (80.4 kilometers) of Jerusalem, to fight against Gibeon and Joshua (Jos 10:3-5).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua came to Gibeon’s defense and routed the Amorites, chasing them to the northwest and southwest. The Lord fought for Israel, raining hailstones on the Amorites at Azekah, southwest of Gibeon, and causing the sun to stand still in order to provide a longer battle day (Jos 10:6-14).<\/p>\n<p>In the far north, Jabin, king of Hazor, rallied the Canaanites and remaining Amorites all the way north to Mt Hermon (Jos 11:1-5). But they too were overcome (Jos 11:10-23). Toward the end of Joshua’s career, he reminded the people that it was the Lord who had given them the land of the Amorites (Jos 24:1-18).<\/p>\n<p>After the occupation of Canaan by Israel, Amorites still present in the land chased Dan’s tribe into the mountains and continued to live near Aijalon, 17 miles (27.4 kilometers) west of Jerusalem. They still held the slopes toward the south end of the Dead Sea as well (Jgs 1:34-36). In the period of the judges, the Amorites and their gods posed a constant threat to Israel’s well-being (Jgs 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the period of the judges, relations between Israel and the Amorites improved (1 Sm 7:14). David continued to honor Joshua’s treaty with the Amorite remnant of Gibeon (2 Sm 21:2-6). Solomon conscripted his labor forces from the Amorites and other peoples still surviving from Israelite conquest (1 Kgs 9:20-22).<\/p>\n<p>The OT treats the deliverance of the Amorites and their land into the hands of Israel as a great event comparable with the exodus itself, a victory to be remembered and celebrated (Pss 135:9-12; 136:13-26). If the people forgot, the Lord reminded them through his prophets (Am 2:9-10). Long after Sihon and Og had been defeated, the area east of the Jordan was still remembered as the land of “Sihon king of the Amorites” (1 Kgs 4:19). When the kings of Israel and Judah began to fail God, the memory of the Amorites provided a standard of comparison of evil. The Jews’ continuing fascination with idolatry led God to address Jerusalem, representing the Jewish people, through the prophet Ezekiel: “Your mother was a Hittite and your father an Amorite” (Ez 16:45). In the biblical view, the Amorites stood for everything that is abominable in the sight of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMORITES Semitic people found throughout the Fertile Crescent of the Near East at the beginning of the second millennium BC. Amorites are first mentioned in the Bible as descendants of Canaan in a list of ancient peoples (Gn 10:16; cf. 1 Chr 1:13-16). Some of these nomadic people seem to have migrated from the Syrian Desert into Mesopotamia, others into Palestine. Akkadian cuneiform inscriptions mention a relatively uncivilized people called Amurru (translation of the Sumerian Mar-tu), perhap...","summary_en":"AMORITES Semitic people found throughout the Fertile Crescent of the Near East at the beginning of the second millennium BC. Amorites are first mentioned in the Bible as descendants of Canaan in a list of ancient peoples (Gn 10:16; cf. 1 Chr 1:13-16). Some of these nomadic people seem to have migrated from the Syrian Desert into Mesopotamia, others into Palestine. Akkadian cuneiform inscriptions mention a relatively uncivilized people called Amurru (translation of the Sumerian Mar-tu), perhap...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1473,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","summary_en":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","summary_en":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","summary_en":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>Amorites<\/em> is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","summary_en":"2:9 Amorites is used here as a general term to denote the inhabitants of Canaan (see Gen 15:16; Judg 6:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64628,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92254,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119880,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147506,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Social Justice","title_en":"Social Justice","content_ro":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Social Justice<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s <span>BC<\/span>). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s <span>BC<\/span> (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue.<\/p>\n<p>Amos was appalled by Israel’s abuse of the powerless (Amos 2:6-8; 3:10). Unlike the surrounding nations, Israel had known God in a uniquely personal and intimate manner and then turned away from him (2:9-12; 3:1-2). The people of Israel had refused to worship God appropriately and had oppressed the powerless, so God would hold them accountable and meet them in judgment (4:12), not mercy. God wants justice to flow like a mighty river (Amos 5:24). Those who oppose it will be swept away.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of social justice is also made clear in the New Testament. Jesus drew a connection between proper worship and the practice of social justice, warning of the judgment that is coming upon those who do not express their faith in loving action toward others (see Matt 25:31-46). Right understanding must be matched by right practice, which serves as evidence of one’s faith (see Luke 10:25-37; John 13:35). Jesus’ followers recoginzed the significant role social justice needed to play within the early Christian communities (see Acts 2:44-45; Gal 2:9-10; 1 Tim 5:3-16; Jas 1:27–2:26; 1 Jn 3:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>God’s compassion for the oppressed is evidenced throughout Scripture. As followers of Christ, we must not neglect those who are in need, and like the prophets, we must confront injustice wherever it is encountered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 23:1-12; Lev 19:9-18; Deut 10:17-20; 16:18-20; 24:10-22; 1 Kgs 21:1-24; 2 Chr 19:4-11; Pss 94:20-23; 146:3-9; Prov 22:8-9; 31:8-9; Eccl 5:8-9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 9:6-7; 10:1-2; 42:1-4; 58:4-12; Amos 2:6-8; 5:7-17, 23-24; Matt 12:15-21; 23:23; Luke 10:25-37; Heb 1:8-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","summary_en":"Social Justice In the Old Testament, prophets often confronted evil in society and articulated a demand for social justice. An early example of this is found in Elijah’s response to the murder of Naboth, followed by his rebuke of Ahab (1 Kgs 21:16-24, 800s BC). The social aspect of the prophetic message became even more prominent among the prophets of the 700s BC (Hosea and Amos in Israel, Micah and Isaiah in Judah), with Amos as the most articulate spokesman on this issue. Amos was appalled ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":53902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","summary_en":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","summary_en":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","summary_en":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:11","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:11-12<\/strong> In addition to priests, God provided <em>prophets<\/em> to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called <em>Nazirites<\/em><em>,<\/em> who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","summary_en":"2:11-12 In addition to priests, God provided prophets to speak his word and will (Deut 18:15-19) and holy men called Nazirites, who were dedicated to the Lord by vows that included abstention from fermented drinks (Num 6:1-21). Israel showed its disregard for God by telling both the Nazirites and the prophets to ignore and violate God’s calling (see Amos 7:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":1474,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Amos","title_en":"Book of Amos","content_ro":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMOS, B<span>ook of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Significance<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The preacher of the sermons (or oracles) in the book was undoubtedly Amos, a herdsman and a dresser (farmer) of fig trees, from the village of Tekoa, south of Jerusalem. He received from God a vision of judgment on Israel and went north to Bethel, just across the border between Judah and Israel, to deliver his sermons. All we know about the prophet is contained in the superscription (1:1-2) and a biographical section (7:10-14) of the book of Amos, plus what can be learned about him from the style and content of the rest of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Did Amos write down his prophecies himself? Although scholars have raised many questions about the authorship of Amos, there is no convincing reason to regard the book as the work of anyone else. Some have suggested that the sermons were passed on by word of mouth for a long time before they were written down in final form. The Hebrew text, however, is in much better shape than would be expected (had it come through prolonged oral transmission). The many first-person references and vigor of expression imply strongly that Amos himself put much of his prophecy into writing soon after delivering it at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p>Another speculative proposal is that the visions described in the book (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4) were compiled by Amos before he began his ministry to the northern kingdom, and the oracles (chs 1–6) were composed after that time. The two sections could have been joined into one book much later, during or after the Babylonian exile, with some sections inserted at that time. Other prophecies, however, such as Ezekiel and Jeremiah, contain both oracle and vision sections that scholars have not attempted to divide, and the internal evidence does not make such a division necessary with Amos. Both sections contain similar concerns; in both the visions (7:1-3) and the oracles (5:1-7), Amos appears in the role of intercessor on behalf of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>According to the superscription, Amos prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (1:1), or between 792 and 740 <span>BC<\/span>. The content of his message fits what is known about the situation in Israel in that period. It is difficult to be more exact about the beginning and ending of Amos’s prophetic ministry within that time span. The vision came to him “two years before the earthquake” (1:1), but another biblical reference to presumably the same earthquake places it during the days of King Uzziah of Judah (Zec 14:5). Archaeological excavations at Hazor seem to have yielded evidence for an earthquake, which has been dated at approximately 760 <span>BC<\/span>. Amos also contains a prophetic reference to a solar eclipse (8:9); such an eclipse has been calculated to have occurred about 763 <span>BC<\/span>. After King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy, he lived in isolation while Judah was under a co-regency (2 Chr 26:21). Therefore, Amos’s mention of Uzziah as king (1:1) probably sets 760 <span>BC<\/span> as the latest possible date for Amos’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>The doom that came upon Israel after Amos’s prophecy was the conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). Although Amos referred to impending captivity, he never mentioned Assyria as the captor, although he did say that captivity would take Israel to a land east of Damascus (5:27). Probably Amos was not thinking specifically of the rising power of Assyria but only of the inevitable consequences of Israel’s idolatry and hypocrisy. When all the evidence is taken into consideration, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of Amos’s prophecies at Bethel to about 760 <span>BC<\/span>, or approximately the middle of the period during which both Uzziah and Jeroboam II were on their thrones. We do not know how long his ministry lasted; it may have been only a few months.<\/p>\n<p>Amos had been caring for his flocks in the Judean hills south of Jerusalem when God told him, “Go and prophesy to my people in Israel” (7:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). He may have been familiar with the more urban north from earlier trips there to sell wool or fruit, or the pagan worship and social wrongs there may have made a sudden impact on him after his call to prophesy. At any rate, his writings reveal not only his rural Judean background but also a firsthand knowledge of conditions in the northern kingdom of Israel. Although his prophecies were directed primarily to Israel, he also denounced the sin of Judah, predicting that its capital, Jerusalem, would be burned (2:4-5). Several passages are directed at inhabitants of Samaria, capital of Israel (4:1, 11; 6:1), with which Amos was obviously familiar. He could have traveled on to Samaria from Bethel, or he could have learned of its splendors from the boasts of its citizens. He could have addressed them directly as they came from the capital city to worship at Bethel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The eighth century <span>BC<\/span> was a critical time in Jewish history. Both kingdoms of the divided nation had risen to heights of economic affluence that had not been experienced since the days of Solomon. Yet internal religious decay was sapping the strength of both kingdoms, and their social fabric was being destroyed. A new wealthy class was benefiting from the affluence of the time, growing ever richer while poor people became poorer than ever.<\/p>\n<p>In 803 <span>BC<\/span>, the conquest of Syrian Damascus by the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III had silenced one of Israel’s major enemies. With the Syrians out of the picture, the kingdom of Israel was able to expand its borders under King Joash (2 Kgs 13:25), and for a time even the thrust of Assyrian power westward was diminished. Israel and Judah entered a period of rest from constant warfare and turned their attention to internal affairs.<\/p>\n<p>Joash’s son, Jeroboam II, became king of Israel in 793 and reigned until 753 <span>BC<\/span>. Uzziah was on the throne of Judah from 792 to 740 <span>BC<\/span>. Under these two kings, Judah and Israel controlled a territory that was almost as large as Solomon’s empire had been. Their wealth had grown both from expansion of trade and from the booty of conquered territories.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology has yielded information about industrial activity within the nations, such as an impressive dyeing industry at Debir. Excavations at Samaria have produced large numbers of ivory inlays that confirm Amos’s description of the wealthy in the capital city (6:4). The city of Samaria was protected by a huge double wall of unusual thickness. A palace, probably Jeroboam’s, dominated the city with a massive tower.<\/p>\n<p>The splendor and prosperity of the time, however, was masking the spread of internal decay. Oppression of the poor by many in the wealthy classes not only threatened the unity of the nation but also meant that God’s laws were being violated. In his denunciations of the cruel treatment of the poor (5:11-13; 8:4-10), Amos warned of the inevitable punishment for disobeying God’s laws.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel was guilty of more than social sins against the covenant. It was also adopting pagan religious practices. Canaanite religious influence intruded into the fabric of the nation of Israel. Excavation of a palace storehouse in Samaria uncovered many <em>ostraca<\/em> (pieces of broken pottery used for writing short messages such as letters, receipts, etc.) containing Hebrew names compounded with “Baal,” a chief god of the Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the gradual deterioration, false optimism seems to have prevailed. Amos found people desiring the Day of the Lord (5:18) and sought to correct their misunderstanding: the Day of the Lord prophesied in the Scriptures would be a time of judgment on all sinners. A more immediate judgment was to come, however. Assyria began to strengthen its position in the world and to resume its expansionist policies. Under the leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria regained a position of world dominance. Eventually, Israel was attacked by Shalmaneser V of Assyria. Soon afterward, in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, Samaria was occupied. No doubt when the Assyrians were sweeping into Israel, many of the people who had ignored the message of Amos then realized that a prophet of God had been among them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Superscription (1:1)<\/h5>\n<p>The prophet introduces himself as a shepherd, perhaps implying that it is more than sheep he wants to keep from straying.<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Oracles (1:2–6:14)<\/h5>\n<p>This section begins with a picture of the great power of God, who acts in history to judge the nations (1:2).<\/p>\n<h6>Judgment on Surrounding Nations (1:3–2:3)<\/h6>\n<p>The prophet first speaks against Damascus, then moves on, pronouncing doom on various peoples in ever closer concentric circles, “homing in” on Israel. One may imagine the citizens of Israel applauding God’s judgment on other nations until, with shocking effect, Amos accuses Israel of similar sins.<\/p>\n<p>Damascus was the capital of Syria, northeast of Israel, and the center of Syrian influence. Syria had mistreated Israel during Hazael’s reign in Damascus (842–806 <span>BC<\/span>). Hazael “whittled down” Israel in a number of campaigns (2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:3-5, 22-24). In their campaign into the territory of Gilead, the Syrians destroyed most of Israel’s army as though they were dust on a threshing floor (2 Kgs 13:7). Hence, Amos denounces Syria for threshing Gilead as grain is threshed with iron rods (Am 1:3). He predicts that Syria will be destroyed and its people deported to Kir, which Amos understood to be their place of origin (9:7). (For the fulfillment of this prophecy, see 2 Kgs 16:9.)<\/p>\n<p>Amos next turned to Gaza, a Philistine city in southwest Palestine. Gaza probably represents the Philistines as a whole, since three other of their five major cities are also mentioned (1:8). The fifth, Gath, had already been conquered by Hazael (2 Kgs 12:17). Amos denounced the Philistines for what must have been a border raid on Israel in which many were carried off into slavery (1:6).<\/p>\n<p>The Phoenician city of Tyre is cited next. Tyre was on the Mediterranean, north of Israel and southwest of Damascus. Destruction of Tyre, like that of the Philistine cities, is predicted as punishment for making slaves of conquered Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Edom is next, south of the Dead Sea. Edom had perennially harassed the Israelites and is referred to in a negative light many times in the OT. Edom is said to have been pitiless toward Israel, his brother (1:11).<\/p>\n<p>Ammon, just to the southeast of Israel, is also judged. The particularly violent incident referred to (1:13) evidently occurred in one of their many attempts to push northward into the Israelite territory of Gilead.<\/p>\n<p>Moab is the last of the surrounding nations to be denounced, with reference to what may have been a well-known incident of desecration of the dead (2:1-3).<\/p>\n<h6>Oracles against Israel and Judah (2:4-16)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Judah and Israel were at peace at the time, their enmity had continued after dissolution of the united kingdom. Amos accuses Judah of rejecting “the law of the Lord” and predicts the burning of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>The oracle against Israel is longer than the others. Amos carefully specifies the social nature of Israel’s sin, making the point that Israel is no better than the surrounding nations. Israel deserves the same punishment. Just as some of the nations were guilty of taking people into slavery, Israel is selling her own poor who cannot repay their debts (2:6). Under Mosaic law it was illegal to keep overnight a garment pledged as security for a loan, since it might be the only source of warmth the debtor had (Ex 22:26-27). Rich people in Israel were attending religious feasts in such clothing “stolen” from the poor (2:8).<\/p>\n<p>Amos reminds Israel of all the good things God has done for them (2:9-11). But because Israel has chosen to continue in disobedience, the nation will not escape impending judgment (2:12-16).<\/p>\n<h6>Denunciation of and Warning against Israel (3:1–6:14)<\/h6>\n<p>Amos substantiates his prophetic authority with a lesson on cause and effect (3:1-8). A lion roars when it has prey, and people fear when a trumpet sounds an alarm. If calamity comes to a city, God has allowed it. God, who reveals his secrets to his prophets, has spoken Israel’s doom, and Amos must proclaim it.<\/p>\n<p>In a dramatic statement, Amos calls on Egypt and Assyria, great centers of oppression and cruelty, to witness Israel’s crimes, as though even they will be amazed at what they see (3:9-10). Only a ragged remnant will survive the punishment to come (3:11-12). Judgment will fall on objects that symbolize Israel’s religious disobedience (3:14) as well as on symbols of the wealth that led Israel away from the Lord (3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Amos uses strong language to denounce luxurious and indolent living bought at the expense of the poor (4:1-3). Rich women whose love for luxuries drives their husbands to squeeze the needy still more are called “fat cows” who will someday be treated like cattle. Then Amos mocks those who worship at Bethel for going through the motions in the wrong spirit (4:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>In the rest of the fourth chapter, Amos recalls incidents from Israel’s history that were meant to call the people back to God: famine, drought, plagues, the destruction of some of their cities. Still they do not repent. “Prepare to meet your God!” warns the prophet, following his warning with a hymn to the mighty power of God (4:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The fifth chapter begins in the form of a funeral dirge, as though Israel were as good as dead already (5:1-2). There is no one to help Israel, whose own armies will be decimated when the disaster strikes (5:3). Of course, God is there to help: “Seek me and live” (5:4-6). The possibility of rescue, of “life,” stands in sharp contrast to the nation’s “death” pictured just before. Idols, as always, are a false hope (5:5). The call to seek the Lord is again followed by a hymn to his power (5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the hope offered to Israel, Amos has to present a gloomy picture of what he sees (5:10-13). The judicial system is corrupt; taxes and high interest charges (usury) grind down the poor. Those injustices could be corrected if the people would “hate evil and love good” (5:15), but judgment is already on the way (5:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>The people are full of hypocrisy, claiming to look forward to the Day of the Lord. That day will be a day of judgment on their sins, Amos says. Instead of empty gestures of offerings and praise, God wants to let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everflowing stream (5:18-24). Their disobedient spirit goes back to the time of the exodus from Egypt, when God’s own people were attracted to pagan gods. The Lord God of Hosts will send those false gods into captivity with the people who looked to them (5:25-27).<\/p>\n<p>The self-satisfaction felt by the upper classes in Israel had evidently spread to Judah, since Jerusalem as well as Samaria receives some harsh words (6:1). Amos tells those who are lounging in luxury to take a look at three neighboring kingdoms on which judgment has already fallen: Calneh, Hamath, and Gath. Does Israel think it will escape, since they did not? When the Day of Judgment comes, the rich, who have gone “first-class,” will be the first to go (6:2-7). The destruction will leave few survivors, but they will know that punishment came from God (6:8-11). Israel is behaving stupidly to be proud of themselves when they are actually so utterly self-deceived (6:12-14).<\/p>\n<h5>Prophetic Visions (7:1–9:10)<\/h5>\n<p>By describing three visions God gave him, Amos then dramatically communicates God’s revelation.<\/p>\n<h6>Israel’s Destruction (7:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>The first vision is in three parts. In the first, Amos pictures the threat of a locust plague in which his prayer of intercession causes God to relent and withdraw the threat (7:1-3). Then he sees an all-consuming fire, and again his prayer averts a catastrophe (7:4-6). In the third part of the vision, Amos sees the Lord standing by a wall and holding a plumb line, implying that he has a standard for his people to live up to, an element missing from the two earlier images. This time, because the people have failed to measure up, the catastrophe cannot be averted (7:7-9).<\/p>\n<h6>Historical Interlude (7:10-17)<\/h6>\n<p>At this point, Amos encounters Amaziah, priest of Bethel, because he has said that the vision of the plumb line means destruction of the idol altars and temples of Israel and of the house of Jeroboam with the sword. Amaziah sends word to Jeroboam that Amos is a traitor and tells Amos to go back to Judah. Amos disclaims any relationship with professional prophets, then specifically includes Amaziah’s family in another prediction of Israel’s disaster.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ripe Fruit (8:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>In the second vision, Amos is shown a basket of ripe (or summer) fruit. The Hebrew word for summer fruit is almost the same as the word for “end,” so the play on words communicates that the nation is “ripe for punishment.” Their ripeness is really moral rottenness. Greedy merchants can hardly wait for religious holidays to end so they can cheat the poor some more by using false weights, selling inferior goods, and foreclosing on debtors. When the captivity comes, their festivities will turn into funerals. A famine, not just of bread and water but of the words of the Lord, is coming upon them, causing even the strongest young people to drop to the ground.<\/p>\n<h6>Destruction of the Temple (9:1-10)<\/h6>\n<p>The third vision is of the Lord destroying the shrine at Bethel when it is thronged with people engaging in their empty worship. The place where they hoped to find security is where they find destruction. Those who are not inside will be destroyed, too, no matter where they try to flee. They won’t be able to hide from God in Sheol or on the heights of Carmel or in the depths of the sea (9:1-4). Another hymn to God’s power follows the vision (9:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>The final words of denunciation in the book of Amos are found in 9:7-10, but they are a prelude to a message of hope. Amos shows that Israel is no better than any other nation in the eyes of God. Did he not bring Israel out of Egypt? Yes, but he also brought the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir. The religious significance of the exodus has been lost because of Israel’s sin, so all but a faithful remnant will be lost.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of the remnant was important in the prophetic preaching of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Is 6:12-13; Mi 6:7-9). It recalled God’s promise to maintain the nation of Israel for the sake of the covenant given to the patriarchs (Lv 26:44-45). In Amos’s prophecy, Israel is to be sifted by other nations like grain in a sieve; the ungodly “chaff” will be scattered across the world, but the true “grain” will be preserved.<\/p>\n<h5>Israel’s Hope (9:11-15)<\/h5>\n<p>The expression of hope is expanded in the last section of the book in a series of startling and beautiful metaphors.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of the City of David (9:11-12)<\/h6>\n<p>The first metaphor is of the city (literally “house”) of David, a house fallen into disrepair. The monarchy, which had crumbled from internal decay and external threats, is envisioned as being restored to its former glory. Further, an expansion of the Davidic kingdom will include all nations that belong to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, this passage was quoted by James to support the inclusion of Gentiles in the promise (Acts 15:16-18). The wording in Acts is slightly different from that of Amos because it was based on an early Greek translation of the OT (called the Septuagint). Those called by God’s name or belonging to God include not only geographical entities such as nations but also individuals in any nation who have a close relationship to God. James saw that Amos was predicting inclusion of Gentiles in the kingdom of God, a kingdom far greater than the early monarchy. This prophecy has been fulfilled in part in the Christian church.<\/p>\n<h6>Restoration of Israel’s Fortunes (9:13-15)<\/h6>\n<p>A series of pastoral metaphors closes the book of Amos. They depict the abundance of blessing in the coming kingdom. Israel’s fortunes are to be restored, far beyond the dismal events of the century in which Amos is speaking. Theologians differ in their understanding of the application of this prophecy. If it refers to the present age of the Christian church, it pictures the blessings of the church now as “spiritual Israel.” If it refers to the future, to the millennial reign of Christ, it depicts what will happen on earth at that time.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of a rejuvenated earth is found elsewhere in the Bible (Rom 8:20-22). Micah uses language somewhat similar to that of Amos to describe restoration of what seems to be the literal city of Jerusalem (Mi 3:12–4:4). It may be best to apply the prophetic finale of Amos to the restoration to be effected at the ultimate return of Christ. Whatever the correct application, the remnant must include the followers of Jesus Christ, and the blessings should be seen as intended for all who belong to the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Significance\">Significance<\/p>\n<p>The major purpose of Amos in his prophecies was to denounce Israel’s disobedience to the covenant. Although the covenant promise given to Abraham (Gn 22:15-18) and reiterated throughout the OT is not mentioned explicitly in Amos, it is implicit in the total message of the book. Amos upheld the spiritual nature of the covenant and emphasized that its blessing was mediated through obedience.<\/p>\n<p>Looking around him, Amos saw not only disobedience but hypocrisy. A basic aspect of his ethical teaching was insistence that outward adherence to religious ceremonies without a heart response to the will of God (as expressed in the law) was wrong. The law contained many injunctions that sought to engender love of God and fellow human beings (Ex 23:1-13). In Amos’s time, those social aspects of the law were being willfully disobeyed by the rich, who nevertheless clung to religious ritual. Amos saw what was in their hearts and condemned it. To him, religious obligations not observed in the proper spirit of responsibility to God could actually become sin (4:4). Religion could degenerate to the place where it becomes a curse, a mockery of the will of a holy God.<\/p>\n<p>Amos saw the disobedience and hypocrisy of Israel as culminating in national disaster. Thus his prophecy served as a warning of impending doom to the nation. He saw that other nations besides Israel and Judah were held accountable to God because of their mistreatment of others (1:3–2:3). Their social sins were punished by God in history. Amos thus saw an aspect of the law extending beyond Israel and Judah to other nations. They were responsible to God under what might be called a universal moral law, and they were judged for their crimes against humanity.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic concept of the Day of the Lord, regarded by the people of Amos’s day as a time of vindication for their nation, was seen by Amos as a time of punishment for all sinners. Such punishment would not exclude the nation of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Yet denunciation was not the sole purpose of Amos’s prophetic activity. He proclaimed a future of hope for Israel in the reestablishment of the Davidic monarchy, evidently under Messiah, in a time that would be characterized by peace (9:8-15). The relationship of the Davidic kingdom to the messianic kingdom goes back to the promise given to David (2 Sm 7:8-16). Just as those in other nations participated by extension in the demands of the law and in judgment, so would those in other nations who belonged to God participate in the blessings of the promise (9:12).<\/p>\n<p>The concepts of God drawn most sharply in the book of Amos are God’s sovereignty and God’s righteousness. He is sovereign over all the nations of the world, typified by those surrounding Israel, and he brings them to judgment (1:3–2:3). He is also sovereign over nature, as recognized in his control of the universe (4:13; 5:8; 9:13-14). His righteousness demands that he cannot allow his law to continue to be violated without retribution. But his righteousness is also the guarantee of hope for the believing remnant of Israel. It binds him to keep his promise to preserve Israel as a nation (Lv 26:44-45).<\/p>\n<p>Amos held out the possibility of averting the national catastrophe looming on the horizon of world events. However, from his gloomy description of social conditions and of the hardness of people’s hearts at the time, it seems likely that he did not foresee any escape.<\/p>\n<p>His message was presented in bold metaphors and vivid pictures that stick in the mind. That message is still relevant, for many of the sins that characterized the people of the prophet’s day are still prevalent in modern society and in the lives of individuals. Mistreatment of fellow human beings is as much a feature of the 21st century <span>AD<\/span> as it was of the 8th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Today’s reader of the book of Amos should note the prophet’s insistence on the consequences of sin; his emphasis on the responsibility that always accompanies privilege; his presentation of God’s faithfulness; and his message of hope, expressed in part today through the church.<\/p>\n<p>If the book seems to be gloomy in its outlook, it should be remembered that the prophet faced a gloomy picture. He was watching a nation crumble because of its unfaithfulness to God. But beyond the dismal prospect that faced Israel, Amos saw a new kingdom emerging. It was a kingdom of peace in which the people of God would realize the fulfillment of God’s promises. <em>See<\/em> Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","summary_en":"AMOS, Book of Writings of the prophet Amos, one of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew OT. The book of Amos is called minor only because it is relatively short. Its message is as important as that of any of the major prophets. Indeed, Amos has one of the most powerful statements in the Bible of God’s judgment against injustice, oppression, and hypocrisy. The book consists primarily of prophetic sermons preached by Amos at Bethel, royal sanctuary of the northern kingdom of Israel in the eighth...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":53903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","summary_en":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","summary_en":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","summary_en":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14-16<\/strong> The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","summary_en":"2:14-16 The chapter concludes with a description of the battle in which Israel would be defeated and would flee (see Ps 33:16-17).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":53904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","summary_en":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","summary_en":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","summary_en":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>The archers<\/em> stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","summary_en":"2:15 The archers stood in the last ranks. If they fled, it meant the forward ranks had collapsed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":53905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:16","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","summary_en":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:16","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","summary_en":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:16","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","summary_en":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Amos 2:16","title_en":"Study Note: Amos 2:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:16<\/strong> Amos later calls <em>that day<\/em> the “day of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","summary_en":"2:16 Amos later calls that day the “day of the Lord” (5:18); both expressions indicate the time of judgment on Israel (see also 8:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}