1
,,Nebucadneţar, împăratul, către toate popoarele, neamurile, oamenii de toate limbile, cari locuiesc pe tot pământul: Să aveţi multă pace!
2
Am găsit cu cale să fac cunoscut semnele şi minunile, pe cari le-a făcut Dumnezeul cel Prea Înalt faţă de mine.
3
Cât de mari sânt semnele Lui şi cât de puternice sânt minunile Lui! Împărăţia Lui este o împărăţie vecinică, şi stăpânirea Lui dăinuieşte din neam în neam!
4
Eu, Nebucadneţar, trăiam liniştit în casa mea, şi fericit în palatul meu.
5
Am visat un vis, care m-a înspăimântat; gândurile de cari eram urmărit în patul meu şi vedeniile duhului meu mă umpleau de groază.
6
Am poruncit atunci să aducă înaintea mea pe toţi înţelepţii Babilonului, ca să-mi tâlcuiască visul.
7
Îndată au venit vrăjitorii, cititorii în stele, Haldeii şi ghicitorii. Le-am spus visul, şi nu mi l-au putut tâlcui.
8
La urmă de tot, s-a înfăţişat înaintea mea Daniel, numit Beltşaţar, după numele dumnezeului meu, şi care are în el duhul dumnezeilor celor sfinţi. I-am spus visul, şi am zis:
9
-,,Beltşaţare, căpetenia vrăjitorilor, ştiu că ai în tine duhul dumnezeilor sfinţi, şi că pentru tine nici o taină nu este grea; deci tâlcuieşte-mi vedeniile, pe cari le-am avut în vis.
10
Iată vedeniile cari mi-au trecut prin cap, când eram în pat. Mă uitam, şi iată că în mijlocul pământului era un copac foarte înalt.
11
Copacul acesta s-a făcut mare şi puternic, vârful lui se înălţa până la ceruri, şi se vedea dela marginile întregului pământ.
12
Frunza lui era frumoasă, şi avea roade multe; în el se găsea hrană pentru toţi; fiarele câmpului se adăposteau supt umbra lui, păsările cerului îşi făceau cuibul în ramurile lui, şi orice făptură vie se hrănea din el.
13
În vedeniile cari-mi treceau prin cap, în patul meu, mă uitam, şi iată că s-a pogorât din ceruri un străjer sfânt.
14
El a strigat cu putere şi a vorbit aşa: ,,Tăiaţi copacul, şi rupeţi ramurile; scuturaţi-i frunza şi risipiţi roadele; fugăriţi fiarele de supt el, şi păsările din ramurile lui!
15
Dar trunchiul cu rădăcinile lui, lăsaţi-l în pământ, şi legaţi-l cu lanţuri de fer şi de aramă, în iarba de pe câmp, ca să fie udat de roua cerului, şi să fie la un loc cu fiarele în iarba pământului.
16
Inima lui de om i se va preface într-o inimă de fiară, şi vor trece şapte vremuri peste el.
17
Hotărârea aceasta a fost luată în sfatul străjerilor, şi pusă la cale înaintea sfinţilor, ca să ştie cei vii că Cel Prea Înalt stăpâneşte peste împărăţia oamenilor, că o dă cui îi place, şi înalţă pe ea pe cel mai de jos dintre oameni!``
18
Iată visul pe care l-am visat, eu, împăratul Nebucadneţar. Tu, Beltşaţar, tâlcuieşte-l, fiindcă toţi înţelepţii din împărăţia mea nu pot să mi-l tâlcuiască; tu însă poţi, căci ai în tine duhul dumnezeilor sfinţi.``
19
Atunci Daniel, numit Beltşaţar, a rămas uimit o clipă, şi gândurile lui îl tulburau. Împăratul a luat din nou cuvântul, şi a zis: ,,Beltşaţare, să nu te turbure visul şi tâlcuirea!``. Şi Beltşaţar a răspuns: ,,Domnul meu, visul acesta să fie pentru vrăjmaşii tăi, şi tâlcuirea lui pentru protivnicii tăi!
20
Copacul pe care l-ai văzut, care se făcuse atât de mare şi puternic, încât i se înălţa vârful până la ceruri şi se vedea dela toate capetele pământului;
21
copacul acesta, a cărui frunză era aşa de frumoasă şi care avea roade atât de multe şi în care era hrană pentru toţi, supt care se adăposteau fiarele câmpului, şi în ramurile căruia îşi făceau-cuibul păsările cerului,
22
eşti tu, împărate, care ai ajuns mare şi puternic, a cărui mărime a crescut şi s-a înălţat până la ceruri, şi a cărui stăpânire se întinde până la marginile pământului.
23
Împăratul a văzut pe un străjer sfânt pogorându-se şi zicând: ,,Tăiaţi copacul, şi nimiciţi-l; dar trunchiul cu rădăcinile lui lăsaţi-l în pământ, şi legaţi-l cu lanţuri de fer şi de aramă, în iarba de pe câmp, ca să fie udat de roua cerului, şi să stea la un loc cu fiarele câmpului, până vor trece şapte vremuri peste el``.
24
Iată tâlcuirea acestui fapt, împărate, iată hotărârea Celui Prea Înalt, care se va împlini asupra domnului meu împăratul.
25
Te vor izgoni din mijlocul oamenilor, vei locui la un loc cu fiarele câmpului, şi îţi vor da să mănânci iarbă ca la boi; vei fi udat de roua cerului şi şapte vremi vor trece peste tine, până vei cunoaşte că Cel Prea Înalt stăpâneşte peste împărăţia oamenilor şi o dă cui vrea.
26
Porunca să lase trunchiul cu rădăcinile copacului, înseamnă că împărăţia ta îţi va rămânea ţie îndată ce vei recunoaşte stăpânirea Celui ce este în ceruri.
27
Deaceea, împărate, placă-ţi sfatul meu! Pune capăt păcatelor tale, şi trăieşte în neprihănire, rupe-o cu nelegiuirile tale, şi ai milă de cei nenorociţi, şi poate că ţi se va prelungi fericirea!
28
Toate aceste lucruri s-au împlinit asupra împăratului Nebucadneţar.
29
După douăsprezece luni, pe când se plimba pe acoperişul palatului împărătesc din Babilon,
30
împăratul a luat cuvântul, şi a zis: ,,Oare nu este acesta Babilonul cel mare, pe care mi l-am zidit eu, ca loc de şedere împărătească, prin puterea bogăţiei mele şi spre slava măreţiei mele?``
31
Nu se sfârşise încă vorba aceasta a împăratului, şi un glas s-a pogorât din cer şi a zis: ,,Află, împărate Nebucadneţar, că ţi s-a luat împărăţia!
32
Te vor izgoni din mijlocul oamenilor, şi vei locui la un loc cu fiarele câmpului; îţi vor da să mănânci iarbă ca la boi, şi vor trece peste tine şapte vremi, până vei recunoaşte că Cel Prea Înalt stăpâneşte peste împărăţia oamenilor şi că o dă cui vrea!`` -
33
Chiar în clipa aceea, s-a împlinit cuvântul acela asupra lui Nebucadneţar. A fost izgonit din mijlocul oamenilor, a mâncat iarbă ca boii, trupul i-a fost udat de roua cerului, până i-a crescut părul ca penele vulturului, şi unghiile ca ghiarele păsărilor.``
34
După trecerea vremii sorocite, eu, Nebucadneţar, am ridicat ochii spre cer, şi mi-a venit iarăş mintea la loc. Am binecuvântat pe Cel Prea Înalt, am lăudat şi slăvit pe Cel ce trăieşte vecinic, Acela a cărui stăpânire este vecinică, şi a cărui împărăţie dăinuieşte din neam în neam.
35
Toţi locuitorii pământului sânt o nimica înaintea Lui; El face ce vrea cu oastea cerurilor şi cu locuitorii pământului, şi nimeni nu poate să stea împotriva mâniei Lui, nici să -I zică:,, Ce faci?``
36
În vremea aceea, mi-a venit mintea înapoi; slava împărăţiei mele, măreţia şi strălucirea mea mi s-au dat înapoi; sfetnicii şi mai marii mei din nou m-au căutat; am fost pus iarăş peste împărăţia mea, şi puterea mea a crescut.
37
Acum, eu, Nebucadneţar, laud, înalţ şi slăvesc pe Împăratul cerurilor, căci toate lucrările Lui sânt adevărate, toate căile Lui sânt drepte, şi El poate să smerească pe ceice umblă cu mândrie!``
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He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. 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King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). 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Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. 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Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124824,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8541,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Daniel (Person)","title_en":"Daniel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","summary_en":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8581,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53484,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","summary_en":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81110,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","summary_en":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108736,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","summary_en":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136362,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:1-37<\/strong> In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","summary_en":"4:1-37 In his pride, King Nebuchadnezzar convinced himself that he had built Babylon (4:30; cp. Gen 11:1-9). He disregarded the warning of the Most High God (Dan 4:24-27). He had still not learned the lesson God was teaching him through these experiences, that the God of Daniel stands outside the world of time and space, and no human is equal to him. So God’s decree of judgment fell upon Nebuchadnezzar (4:17, 25-26; see Prov 16:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":27167,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","content_ro":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","summary_en":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53485,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","summary_en":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81111,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","summary_en":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108737,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","summary_en":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136363,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:4","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:4<\/strong> God did not allow the king to remain in the <em>comfort and prosperity<\/em> of his <em>palace<\/em><em>;<\/em> injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","summary_en":"4:4 God did not allow the king to remain in the comfort and prosperity of his palace; injustice and oppression were in the city (4:27), and the king was full of pride (4:30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":53486,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","summary_en":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81112,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","summary_en":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108738,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","summary_en":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136364,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:5<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar’s <em>dream<\/em> disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","summary_en":"4:5 Nebuchadnezzar’s dream disrupted the false peace and serenity of the king’s misguided life.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":17658,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Interpreter","title_en":"Interpreter","content_ro":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\n<p>One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\n<p>One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","summary_en":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26723,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mystery","title_en":"Mystery","content_ro":"<h3>MYSTERY<\/h3>\n<p>Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told.<\/p>\n<p>The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly seen (among over 30 occurrences in Scripture) are Daniel 3:18-28; 4:6 (Septuagint); Matthew 13:11; Mark 4:11; Luke 8:10; Romans 11:25; 16:25; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 4:1; 15:51; Ephesians 1:9; 3:3-6, 9-12; Colossians 1:26-29; 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 2:7; 1 Timothy 3:9, 16; Revelation 1:20; 10:7; 17:5-18.<\/p>\n<p>In the passages in Daniel, the emphasis is on the revelation that God gave Daniel concerning the content and meaning of King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream about the future. It is important to note here that the dream was about what God was going to do. No wise man, enchanter, magician or diviner could explain it, but “there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries” (Dn 2:28).<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly studies in recent years have determined that similar themes are found in other Jewish writings, including the Dead Sea Scrolls. The stress is on the decisions God has made about the future, especially the end time. The world wrestles with such matters as the problem of evil (i.e., Why, if God is both good and powerful, do people still suffer?). The believer identifies with these problems but knows that God has his providential plans and that one day he will make all things clear. The way God will bring vindication for those who are wronged in this world and judgment to those who do wrong is part of the content of the “mystery” and was a major emphasis in the writings around the time of Christ. God controls the affairs of the universe. The nations will eventually fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 13:11, Mark 4:11, and Luke 8:10 are part of the parables of the kingdom. The kingdom itself is related to the final climactic work of God in history. This is seen in some of the imagery of the parables, such as the harvest, which symbolizes future judgment. Therefore, the word “mystery” is appropriate and significant here. In the immediate context Jesus is explaining why he uses parables. They both vividly illustrate truth and conceal truth from those who are not receptive to it. Therefore, the word “mystery” (plural in Mt and Lk) describes the inner meaning of Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom. Those who accept the message will know its meaning; those who do not will lose not only the meaning but apparently also the opportunity to hear and respond to the message of salvation (Mt 13:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Another aspect of this passage lies in the unasked question as to why, if the Messiah has come, evil still persists in the world. The servants in one of the parables wanted to pull up the weeds, symbolizing evil or evil persons, but were told to allow them to grow until the time of harvest—that is, the judgment (Mt 13:24-30). The persistence of evil in the world and the way God will eventually deal with it is one of the “mysteries.”<\/p>\n<p>Romans 11:25 occurs in a large section (chs 9–11) that deals with the people of Israel and their future. Once again, the issue concerns a present problem and its future resolution. In this case the problem is the unbelief of Israel. The hardening of Israel during the present time is called a “mystery” (Rom 11:25). God’s purposes will not be thwarted, however, “and so all Israel will be saved” (v 26). This emphasis on the purposes of God is closely intertwined with the concept of the “mystery” and is basic to this entire passage.<\/p>\n<p>Romans 16:25 is broader in its scope, connecting the “revelation of the mystery hidden for long ages past” with Paul’s “gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ.” Here the focus is more closely on the meaning of the death of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>God’s “secret wisdom” is mentioned in 1 Corinthians 2:7. The context is the message of the cross that Paul preaches. This message is foolishness to those who consider themselves wise but are lost, and it is the “foolishness” of what is preached that brings salvation to believers (1:18-25). Paul does not attempt to proclaim worldly “wisdom,” but he does declare a “message of wisdom” to those who are spiritually mature (2:6). To these he speaks the “secret wisdom,” or literally, “wisdom in a secret” (v 7). This passage clearly connects the basic concept of “mystery” as the counsel of God with the death of Christ as the means of salvation. It also connects mystery with the process of history (“the rulers of this age”) and with the sweep of God’s purposes from OT times into the future. Verse 10 emphasizes the fact that God has indeed revealed these mysteries to us.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 4:1 Paul again speaks from the context of a contrast between God’s wisdom and that of the world (3:18-23). He speaks not only of secret things or mysteries but also introduces the concept of stewardship. He has been entrusted with the revelation of God’s mystery and must be faithful in his ministry of declaring it. This theme will reappear in Ephesians 3:2-6.<\/p>\n<p>Paul returns to the relationship of mystery and the end time in 1 Corinthians 15:51. The earlier passage (2:9-16) showed that human knowledge cannot possibly anticipate what God has planned, but God has revealed this mystery to believers. A major aspect of this revealed mystery is the way in which the faithful will be brought into the presence of God: “Lo! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet” (15:51-52, <span>rsv<\/span>). The other references to mystery in 1 Corinthians occur in the broad context of chapters 12–14 dealing with spiritual gifts, which include receiving divine revelation, so the term “mysteries” in 13:2 and 14:2 is appropriate.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians opens with a series of statements about God’s purpose in history, culminating in the universal headship of Christ (Eph 1:10). These statements include such terms as “chose,” “destined,” “will,” “purpose,” “plan,” and “counsel.” This is clearly the range of ideas associated with the word “mystery” in ancient Jewish writings, and these ideas shed light on Paul’s use of the summary expression: “For he has made known to us . . . the mystery of his will” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Part of God’s purpose was to form a body of believers, reconciled to himself and to each other through the cross (Eph 2:14-18). In this body, Jewish and Gentile believers have been made members together of one body and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus, a new phase of God’s revealed plan, which Paul here calls a “mystery” (3:6). As noted above, Paul himself has a responsibility to minister the truth of this “mystery” faithfully (3:2-5; cf. 1 Cor 4:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Colossians continues to show Paul’s sense of responsibility regarding this “mystery,” which is now identified with the “word of God” (Col 1:25-29). Once again there is the idea of the span of history linked with the mystery that is known only by revelation: “the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and generations, but is now disclosed to the saints” (v 26). As in Ephesians, the church is the locus for the working out of God’s mystery, “which is Christ in you, the hope of glory” (v 27). This Christ is proclaimed in wisdom, so that believers may reach mature completion in him (v 28). The Colossian believers are asked to pray for Paul as he preaches this “mystery” (4:3).<\/p>\n<p>It is made clear in 1 Timothy 3:16 that the “mystery of godliness” includes the basic elements associated with the “mystery,” such as its manifestation in the world and ultimate vindication. However, this grand plan of God does not unfold without opposition. In connection with the coming of the end time, Paul again mentions a mystery. This time it is a dark mystery, called the “secret power of lawlessness” (2 Thes 2:7). A similar evil force, “Babylon the Great, the Mother of Prostitutes,” is introduced in the book of Revelation with the word “mystery” (Rv 17:5). Perhaps the idea is that there are forces counter to God whose workings are also impossible for humans to understand. God’s truth and power will, however, prevail over these, as he brings his own mystery, his wise counsel, to fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation 10:6-7 declares this fulfillment. The ages of waiting in perplexity, of enduring evil, are over, as the angel announces, “There will be no more delay!” The time has finally come when “the mystery of God will be accomplished.” Note the dynamic quality of the mystery in this context. It is not just static truth but something that can be “accomplished.” This great climax to history is in accord with God’s previous revelation “to his servants, the prophets.” The mystery, then, is God’s wise counsel, which both guides history and is revealed in its culmination. It expresses God’s answer to the problem of evil and the vain opposition by evil powers. It declares the meaning of the central event in history, the death of Christ, and reveals the results of the resurrection in the ultimate transformation of all believers at the coming of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MYSTERY<\/h3>\n<p>Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told.<\/p>\n<p>The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly seen (among over 30 occurrences in Scripture) are Daniel 3:18-28; 4:6 (Septuagint); Matthew 13:11; Mark 4:11; Luke 8:10; Romans 11:25; 16:25; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 4:1; 15:51; Ephesians 1:9; 3:3-6, 9-12; Colossians 1:26-29; 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 2:7; 1 Timothy 3:9, 16; Revelation 1:20; 10:7; 17:5-18.<\/p>\n<p>In the passages in Daniel, the emphasis is on the revelation that God gave Daniel concerning the content and meaning of King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream about the future. It is important to note here that the dream was about what God was going to do. No wise man, enchanter, magician or diviner could explain it, but “there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries” (Dn 2:28).<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly studies in recent years have determined that similar themes are found in other Jewish writings, including the Dead Sea Scrolls. The stress is on the decisions God has made about the future, especially the end time. The world wrestles with such matters as the problem of evil (i.e., Why, if God is both good and powerful, do people still suffer?). The believer identifies with these problems but knows that God has his providential plans and that one day he will make all things clear. The way God will bring vindication for those who are wronged in this world and judgment to those who do wrong is part of the content of the “mystery” and was a major emphasis in the writings around the time of Christ. God controls the affairs of the universe. The nations will eventually fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew 13:11, Mark 4:11, and Luke 8:10 are part of the parables of the kingdom. The kingdom itself is related to the final climactic work of God in history. This is seen in some of the imagery of the parables, such as the harvest, which symbolizes future judgment. Therefore, the word “mystery” is appropriate and significant here. In the immediate context Jesus is explaining why he uses parables. They both vividly illustrate truth and conceal truth from those who are not receptive to it. Therefore, the word “mystery” (plural in Mt and Lk) describes the inner meaning of Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom. Those who accept the message will know its meaning; those who do not will lose not only the meaning but apparently also the opportunity to hear and respond to the message of salvation (Mt 13:12-15).<\/p>\n<p>Another aspect of this passage lies in the unasked question as to why, if the Messiah has come, evil still persists in the world. The servants in one of the parables wanted to pull up the weeds, symbolizing evil or evil persons, but were told to allow them to grow until the time of harvest—that is, the judgment (Mt 13:24-30). The persistence of evil in the world and the way God will eventually deal with it is one of the “mysteries.”<\/p>\n<p>Romans 11:25 occurs in a large section (chs 9–11) that deals with the people of Israel and their future. Once again, the issue concerns a present problem and its future resolution. In this case the problem is the unbelief of Israel. The hardening of Israel during the present time is called a “mystery” (Rom 11:25). God’s purposes will not be thwarted, however, “and so all Israel will be saved” (v 26). This emphasis on the purposes of God is closely intertwined with the concept of the “mystery” and is basic to this entire passage.<\/p>\n<p>Romans 16:25 is broader in its scope, connecting the “revelation of the mystery hidden for long ages past” with Paul’s “gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ.” Here the focus is more closely on the meaning of the death of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>God’s “secret wisdom” is mentioned in 1 Corinthians 2:7. The context is the message of the cross that Paul preaches. This message is foolishness to those who consider themselves wise but are lost, and it is the “foolishness” of what is preached that brings salvation to believers (1:18-25). Paul does not attempt to proclaim worldly “wisdom,” but he does declare a “message of wisdom” to those who are spiritually mature (2:6). To these he speaks the “secret wisdom,” or literally, “wisdom in a secret” (v 7). This passage clearly connects the basic concept of “mystery” as the counsel of God with the death of Christ as the means of salvation. It also connects mystery with the process of history (“the rulers of this age”) and with the sweep of God’s purposes from OT times into the future. Verse 10 emphasizes the fact that God has indeed revealed these mysteries to us.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Corinthians 4:1 Paul again speaks from the context of a contrast between God’s wisdom and that of the world (3:18-23). He speaks not only of secret things or mysteries but also introduces the concept of stewardship. He has been entrusted with the revelation of God’s mystery and must be faithful in his ministry of declaring it. This theme will reappear in Ephesians 3:2-6.<\/p>\n<p>Paul returns to the relationship of mystery and the end time in 1 Corinthians 15:51. The earlier passage (2:9-16) showed that human knowledge cannot possibly anticipate what God has planned, but God has revealed this mystery to believers. A major aspect of this revealed mystery is the way in which the faithful will be brought into the presence of God: “Lo! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet” (15:51-52, <span>rsv<\/span>). The other references to mystery in 1 Corinthians occur in the broad context of chapters 12–14 dealing with spiritual gifts, which include receiving divine revelation, so the term “mysteries” in 13:2 and 14:2 is appropriate.<\/p>\n<p>Ephesians opens with a series of statements about God’s purpose in history, culminating in the universal headship of Christ (Eph 1:10). These statements include such terms as “chose,” “destined,” “will,” “purpose,” “plan,” and “counsel.” This is clearly the range of ideas associated with the word “mystery” in ancient Jewish writings, and these ideas shed light on Paul’s use of the summary expression: “For he has made known to us . . . the mystery of his will” (v 9, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Part of God’s purpose was to form a body of believers, reconciled to himself and to each other through the cross (Eph 2:14-18). In this body, Jewish and Gentile believers have been made members together of one body and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus, a new phase of God’s revealed plan, which Paul here calls a “mystery” (3:6). As noted above, Paul himself has a responsibility to minister the truth of this “mystery” faithfully (3:2-5; cf. 1 Cor 4:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>Colossians continues to show Paul’s sense of responsibility regarding this “mystery,” which is now identified with the “word of God” (Col 1:25-29). Once again there is the idea of the span of history linked with the mystery that is known only by revelation: “the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and generations, but is now disclosed to the saints” (v 26). As in Ephesians, the church is the locus for the working out of God’s mystery, “which is Christ in you, the hope of glory” (v 27). This Christ is proclaimed in wisdom, so that believers may reach mature completion in him (v 28). The Colossian believers are asked to pray for Paul as he preaches this “mystery” (4:3).<\/p>\n<p>It is made clear in 1 Timothy 3:16 that the “mystery of godliness” includes the basic elements associated with the “mystery,” such as its manifestation in the world and ultimate vindication. However, this grand plan of God does not unfold without opposition. In connection with the coming of the end time, Paul again mentions a mystery. This time it is a dark mystery, called the “secret power of lawlessness” (2 Thes 2:7). A similar evil force, “Babylon the Great, the Mother of Prostitutes,” is introduced in the book of Revelation with the word “mystery” (Rv 17:5). Perhaps the idea is that there are forces counter to God whose workings are also impossible for humans to understand. God’s truth and power will, however, prevail over these, as he brings his own mystery, his wise counsel, to fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Revelation 10:6-7 declares this fulfillment. The ages of waiting in perplexity, of enduring evil, are over, as the angel announces, “There will be no more delay!” The time has finally come when “the mystery of God will be accomplished.” Note the dynamic quality of the mystery in this context. It is not just static truth but something that can be “accomplished.” This great climax to history is in accord with God’s previous revelation “to his servants, the prophets.” The mystery, then, is God’s wise counsel, which both guides history and is revealed in its culmination. It expresses God’s answer to the problem of evil and the vain opposition by evil powers. It declares the meaning of the central event in history, the death of Christ, and reveals the results of the resurrection in the ultimate transformation of all believers at the coming of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MYSTERY Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told. The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly...","summary_en":"MYSTERY Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told. The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":10803,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Enchantment","title_en":"Enchantment","content_ro":"<h3>ENCHANTMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Act of casting charms or incantations to influence others or to obtain knowledge. Balaam could place no enchantment against Israel but could only bless them (Nm 23:23). Enchanters were present among the wise men of Nebuchadnezzar’s court; however, Daniel and his three friends were found to be ten times wiser than they (Dn 1:20). The enchanters were unable to recall King Nebuchadnezzar’s forgotten dream (2:2-27) or to interpret his second one (4:7); later, under Belshazzar, they could not read or interpret the handwriting on the palace wall (5:7-15). According to the prophet Isaiah, even the great powers of Babylon’s enchantments would not save it from eventual destruction (Is 47:9, 12). In a more figurative sense, the psalmist writes: wickedness “does not hear the voice . . . of the cunning enchanter” (Ps 58:5, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Magic; Sorcery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ENCHANTMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Act of casting charms or incantations to influence others or to obtain knowledge. Balaam could place no enchantment against Israel but could only bless them (Nm 23:23). Enchanters were present among the wise men of Nebuchadnezzar’s court; however, Daniel and his three friends were found to be ten times wiser than they (Dn 1:20). The enchanters were unable to recall King Nebuchadnezzar’s forgotten dream (2:2-27) or to interpret his second one (4:7); later, under Belshazzar, they could not read or interpret the handwriting on the palace wall (5:7-15). According to the prophet Isaiah, even the great powers of Babylon’s enchantments would not save it from eventual destruction (Is 47:9, 12). In a more figurative sense, the psalmist writes: wickedness “does not hear the voice . . . of the cunning enchanter” (Ps 58:5, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Magic; Sorcery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ENCHANTMENT Act of casting charms or incantations to influence others or to obtain knowledge. Balaam could place no enchantment against Israel but could only bless them (Nm 23:23). Enchanters were present among the wise men of Nebuchadnezzar’s court; however, Daniel and his three friends were found to be ten times wiser than they (Dn 1:20). The enchanters were unable to recall King Nebuchadnezzar’s forgotten dream (2:2-27) or to interpret his second one (4:7); later, under Belshazzar, they co...","summary_en":"ENCHANTMENT Act of casting charms or incantations to influence others or to obtain knowledge. Balaam could place no enchantment against Israel but could only bless them (Nm 23:23). Enchanters were present among the wise men of Nebuchadnezzar’s court; however, Daniel and his three friends were found to be ten times wiser than they (Dn 1:20). The enchanters were unable to recall King Nebuchadnezzar’s forgotten dream (2:2-27) or to interpret his second one (4:7); later, under Belshazzar, they co...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39984,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Chaldeans as Astrologers","title_en":"Chaldeans as Astrologers","content_ro":"<h3>Chaldeans as Astrologers<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Long after the Chaldean Empire had ceased to exist, the name “Chaldeans” lingered in Hellenistic Egypt, Greece, and Rome as a term for magicians, astrologers, and diviners. The same usage of the term appears in the book of Daniel, where Chaldeans were linked with soothsayers, conjurers, and sorcerers (Dn 2:2, 10; 4:7; 5:7).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Babylonians had long been renowned for their advanced knowledge of astronomy and for their dependence on the stars to help them predict the future. One Babylonian text from about 700 <span>BC<\/span> described the zodiacal belt and named 15 constellations. Several of the names are still used by astrologers today: the Bull, the Twins (Gemini), the Scorpion, and Capricorn. In Daniel 2:2 and 4:7 one of the terms linked with the Chaldeans is related to a Babylonian word referring to a class of priests who made use of incantations. Just how important they were for society has been shown in excavated tablets that describe the priests’ training. The most outstanding youths of Judah, including Daniel, were selected for a similar educational program (Dn 1:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Chaldeans as Astrologers<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Long after the Chaldean Empire had ceased to exist, the name “Chaldeans” lingered in Hellenistic Egypt, Greece, and Rome as a term for magicians, astrologers, and diviners. The same usage of the term appears in the book of Daniel, where Chaldeans were linked with soothsayers, conjurers, and sorcerers (Dn 2:2, 10; 4:7; 5:7).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Babylonians had long been renowned for their advanced knowledge of astronomy and for their dependence on the stars to help them predict the future. One Babylonian text from about 700 <span>BC<\/span> described the zodiacal belt and named 15 constellations. Several of the names are still used by astrologers today: the Bull, the Twins (Gemini), the Scorpion, and Capricorn. In Daniel 2:2 and 4:7 one of the terms linked with the Chaldeans is related to a Babylonian word referring to a class of priests who made use of incantations. Just how important they were for society has been shown in excavated tablets that describe the priests’ training. The most outstanding youths of Judah, including Daniel, were selected for a similar educational program (Dn 1:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"Chaldeans as Astrologers Long after the Chaldean Empire had ceased to exist, the name “Chaldeans” lingered in Hellenistic Egypt, Greece, and Rome as a term for magicians, astrologers, and diviners. The same usage of the term appears in the book of Daniel, where Chaldeans were linked with soothsayers, conjurers, and sorcerers (Dn 2:2, 10; 4:7; 5:7). Babylonians had long been renowned for their advanced knowledge of astronomy and for their dependence on the stars to help them predict the future...","summary_en":"Chaldeans as Astrologers Long after the Chaldean Empire had ceased to exist, the name “Chaldeans” lingered in Hellenistic Egypt, Greece, and Rome as a term for magicians, astrologers, and diviners. The same usage of the term appears in the book of Daniel, where Chaldeans were linked with soothsayers, conjurers, and sorcerers (Dn 2:2, 10; 4:7; 5:7). Babylonians had long been renowned for their advanced knowledge of astronomy and for their dependence on the stars to help them predict the future...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53487,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","summary_en":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81113,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","summary_en":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108739,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","summary_en":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136365,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:7<\/strong> The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • <em>astrologers:<\/em> See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","summary_en":"4:7 The professionals could not interpret the dream even though it was told to them this time (cp. 2:1-11). Their dream manuals failed them (see study note on 2:4). • astrologers: See also 2:5, 10; 3:8; 5:7, 11, 30.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":53488,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","summary_en":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81114,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","summary_en":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108740,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","summary_en":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136366,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:8-9<\/strong> <em>At last:<\/em> Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • <em>spirit of the holy gods is in him:<\/em> See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit of the holy gods in him showed great respect and helps to explain Daniel’s immunity from harassment (see ch 3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","summary_en":"4:8-9 At last: Nebuchadnezzar appealed first to his Babylonian advisers; in spite of his high position, Daniel, an exiled Jew, was a last resort. • spirit of the holy gods is in him: See 2:47; cp. 5:11. Despite his previous experience of the Most High God, Nebuchadnezzar still believed in many gods. In Egypt, Pharaoh had asserted the same thing of Joseph (Gen 41:37-38). It was the Most High God who assisted Daniel (Dan 4:24). Nevertheless, for the great king to say that Daniel had the spirit ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60447,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Holiness by Relationship","title_en":"Holiness by Relationship","content_ro":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","summary_en":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88073,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Holiness by Relationship","title_en":"Holiness by Relationship","content_ro":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","summary_en":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115699,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Holiness by Relationship","title_en":"Holiness by Relationship","content_ro":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","summary_en":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143325,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Holiness by Relationship","title_en":"Holiness by Relationship","content_ro":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Holiness by Relationship<\/h3>\n<p>Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy?<\/p>\n<p>We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p>When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself there (see Exod 3:5); if his presence is withdrawn, the place reverts to being ordinary. When God declares an object to be holy, such as an altar (Exod 29:44-46), it is because it was built in the manner prescribed by God and has been accepted by God for his service. Its relationship to God makes it holy as nothing else could.<\/p>\n<p>It is the same for people. We are told to be holy because God is holy (Lev 19:2; 1 Pet 1:15-16). Such holiness can only be imputed to humans. Without a relationship with God, true holiness remains elusive, no matter how good, pious, or disciplined a person’s life might be. Only God can make people holy (Exod 31:13; Lev 20:8; 22:32). God promises to be with his people and make their holiness possible (Hos 11:9; see Isa 35:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>The church, like Israel of the Old Testament, shares a relationship with God. Our adoption as God’s children allows us to become godly people (see Exod 4:22; Rom 8:14; Gal 3:26; 1 Jn 3:2). The atoning death of Jesus, the Holy One, makes it possible for all who call on him by faith to enjoy a right relationship with him (Rom 5:12-21), which serves as the basis of our holiness (see 1 Cor 6:11). We can be holy in our standing with God as well as in our conduct toward other people—but only through our connection to the holy God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 3:5; 20:8-11; 28:29-35; 29:44-46; 31:13; Lev 11:44-45; 19:1-3; 20:3-8; 22:32; Ps 24:3-6; Isa 35:8-10; Dan 4:8-9; Rom 8:5-14; Gal 3:2-3; 5:16-26; 1 Pet 1:13-16; 1 Jn 3:2-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","summary_en":"Holiness by Relationship Holiness refers to God’s transcendent character (Lev 10:3). How can we, finite creatures who have fallen into sin, be holy as God is holy? We can never become transcendent like God. We will always be finite creatures, and our holiness cannot be absolute the way God’s holiness is. Thus our holiness does not refer to our own nature and character. Instead, it refers to our relationship with God. When God declares a place to be holy, it is because he manifests himself the...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":31492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":53489,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","summary_en":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81115,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","summary_en":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108741,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","summary_en":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136367,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:11","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:11<\/strong> <em>The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens<\/em> possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","summary_en":"4:11 The tree . . . reaching high into the heavens possibly alludes to the Tower of Babel (Gen 11:1-9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":4987,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birds","title_en":"Birds","content_ro":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","summary_en":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5612,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Branch","title_en":"Branch","content_ro":"<h3>BRANCH<\/h3>\n<p>Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine (Ez 17:6; cf. Ps 80:8-11). “Branch,” with its implication of new growth, can signify prosperity (Gn 49:22; Jb 8:16; Ps 80:8-11; Ez 36:8). Branches can be cut or broken off; hence, the word may depict judgment (Jb 18:16; Is 9:14; Jer 11:16). Such passages speak of withering, being cut, or being burned; Jesus combined all three ideas into one metaphor (Jn 15:6). In a similar way, the apostle Paul wrote that the Jews who didn’t believe would be broken off (Rom 11:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>The major use of such symbolism refers to the Davidic Messiah. Although that use of “branch” actually stems from the prophetic period, its roots go much farther back. The concept was used with reference to an influential figure, such as a king’s personal servant (Gn 40:9-13), the patriarch Joseph (49:22), Job (Jb 29:19), or the Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 4:12). Passages such as 2 Samuel 23:4 and Psalm 132:17 speak of the Davidic line as “growing” or “sprouting forth” (the literal meaning of the Hebrew verbs). Finally, images of agricultural prosperity were used as promised blessings of the messianic age (cf. Lv 26 with the prophetic passages on previous page). It is understandable how the term “branch” could become a technical designation for the Messiah, as is described above.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BRANCH<\/h3>\n<p>Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine (Ez 17:6; cf. Ps 80:8-11). “Branch,” with its implication of new growth, can signify prosperity (Gn 49:22; Jb 8:16; Ps 80:8-11; Ez 36:8). Branches can be cut or broken off; hence, the word may depict judgment (Jb 18:16; Is 9:14; Jer 11:16). Such passages speak of withering, being cut, or being burned; Jesus combined all three ideas into one metaphor (Jn 15:6). In a similar way, the apostle Paul wrote that the Jews who didn’t believe would be broken off (Rom 11:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>The major use of such symbolism refers to the Davidic Messiah. Although that use of “branch” actually stems from the prophetic period, its roots go much farther back. The concept was used with reference to an influential figure, such as a king’s personal servant (Gn 40:9-13), the patriarch Joseph (49:22), Job (Jb 29:19), or the Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 4:12). Passages such as 2 Samuel 23:4 and Psalm 132:17 speak of the Davidic line as “growing” or “sprouting forth” (the literal meaning of the Hebrew verbs). Finally, images of agricultural prosperity were used as promised blessings of the messianic age (cf. Lv 26 with the prophetic passages on previous page). It is understandable how the term “branch” could become a technical designation for the Messiah, as is described above.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BRANCH Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43). Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine ...","summary_en":"BRANCH Literally, a shoot or sprout from a tree or bush; figuratively, a messianic or other spiritual metaphor. It is used for the three sets of arms that come off the main shaft of the golden lampstand in the tabernacle (e.g., Ex 25:31-36) and for the palm fronds from which booths were constructed for the ancient Jewish Feast of Tabernacles (Lv 23:40-43). Metaphorically, the expression is found in passages where Israel is described as an olive tree (Hos 14:6), a cedar (Ez 17:23), and a vine ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":53490,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","summary_en":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81116,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","summary_en":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108742,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","summary_en":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136368,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:13","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:13<\/strong> <em>a holy one:<\/em> The term <em>holy<\/em> is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","summary_en":"4:13 a holy one: The term holy is not widely used in the Semitic languages outside of the Bible. It simply refers to that which is out of the ordinary or nonhuman. Nebuchadnezzar was most probably using it that way here.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":4989,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birds","title_en":"Birds","content_ro":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","summary_en":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53491,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","summary_en":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81117,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","summary_en":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108743,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","summary_en":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136369,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:14-17<\/strong> <em>The messenger<\/em> had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","summary_en":"4:14-17 The messenger had full authority as the representative of the Most High to announce God’s decrees and demand that they be fulfilled.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":25926,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minerals* and Metals","title_en":"Minerals* and Metals","content_ro":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINERALS* AND METALS<\/h3>\n<p>A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions.<\/p>\n<p>In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for toolmaking goes back to the Stone Age; the quarrying of stone for building is also an ancient craft. In particular, metals, native gold, copper, and meteoric iron were known and used in the Middle East before 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. From 4000 to 3000 <span>BC<\/span>, native silver became known as well as copper and lead ores. The art of smelting was discovered probably almost by accident, resulting in the production of alloys like bronze. Then the reduction of oxidized iron was discovered. From 3000 to 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, important advances were made. Copper sulfides and tin oxides were reduced to metal, and metallic tin and copper became important items of trade.<\/p>\n<p>In the years 2000 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>, bellows came into use for furnaces, and iron was reduced from its ores and forged. The art of making brass from copper and zinc was discovered about 1500 <span>BC<\/span> but did not become significant till somewhat later. Bronze, known for many centuries, was made sometimes with a high tin content to form speculum for mirrors. By this time the Israelites were settled in the land and the kingdom was established. From 1000 <span>BC<\/span> to the start of the Christian era, the production of metals, especially iron, greatly expanded. A form of steel was made and used for weapons and tools.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of David and Solomon, the Israelites had learned many skills in the preparation and working of metals. Under David, Edom, with its rich copper and iron deposits, was conquered (2 Sm 8:13-14) and there was a lot of activity in the casting of metals in the Jordan Valley (1 Kgs 7:13-14, 45-46). In this activity Solomon had the assistance of Hiram, a Phoenician artisan. Israelite tradition associated the origins of metallurgy with Tubal-cain (Gn 4:22), who is said to have forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron. Deuteronomy 8:9 refers to the presence of iron and copper in the land to which Israel was going.<\/p>\n<p>While the Israelites eventually undertook their own metalworking processes, it is evident from 1 Samuel 13:19-22 that on at least one occasion, in the days of Philistine domination, they were obliged to have their agricultural tools made by their enemies. Similarly, the manufacture of cult vessels for Solomon’s temple was supervised by Phoenician artisans (1 Kgs 7:13-50).<\/p>\n<p>Minerals, metals, and precious stones were also important items of trade. Israel was never a land rich in these commodities and was obliged to import a wide variety of them. The visit of the queen of Sheba was partly diplomatic and partly for trade (1 Kgs 10:2, 10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Metals and precious stones featured also among the booty carried off by invaders, notably—but not only—by the Egyptians and Assyrians. These items were in constant demand as they were needed for agriculture and making weapons of war, and for the manufacture of jewelry and items of personal adornment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Minerals\">Minerals<\/p>\n<p>A mineral is an inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and structure, sometimes occurring alone or sometimes combined with others. “Ore” refers to any mineral or mineral aggregate containing chemical compounds of metals in sufficient quantity and grade to make the extraction of the metal commercially profitable. The essential element, the metal, occurs in nature as a chemical compound, such as a sulfide, an oxide, a carbonate, or some other compound, though the sulfides and oxides are the most common. Minerals exhibit a variety of properties, such as color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, fracture, hardness, and density, which help in their identification and exercise control on the commercial and industrial uses of the particular mineral.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Metals\">Metals<\/p>\n<p>A metal in its pure form is a chemically pure element with its own fixed physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, crystalline structure, melting point, ductility, conductivity, and the like. Metals form alloys with other metals, but this process destroys their purity. In both the ancient world and the modern world the alloy is extremely important.<\/p>\n<p>In order to obtain a pure metal, the ore in which the metal is contained must be smelted—a process known as metallurgy. In ancient Israel pure metals were widely used—among them were gold, silver, iron, and lead. Yet alloys such as bronze and brass were even more widely used.<\/p>\n<h5>Metallurgy and Metal Extraction<\/h5>\n<p>The method of producing hard wrought iron was discovered by the Hittites of Asia Minor about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, and was taken up by the Philistines (1 Sm 13:19-20). At first, the iron obtained from simple furnaces was drawn off and hammered to drive out slag (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4). Later, the addition of carbon produced an early form of steel.<\/p>\n<p>The lead sulfide ore is heated with lime in a flow of air. A slag with rock particles forms. The air is then cut off and the temperature is raised. Finally, the lead flows free.<\/p>\n<p>The OT refers to the mining of silver (Jb 28:1), the refining of the metal (Zec 13:9; Mal 3:3), the melting of scrap metals or jeweler’s remnants (Ez 22:20-22), and of multiple refinings in a crucible (Prv 17:3; 27:21) to produce refined silver (1 Chr 29:4; Ps 12:6; Prv 10:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Specific Metals<\/h5>\n<p>Although several OT passages suggest that the science of metallurgy was known in biblical times, comparatively little archaeological evidence is available. The processing plants were small and were used for the treatment of copper and iron. The archaeological record is far from complete, but the general impression is that metallic ores were comparatively rare in Palestine; imports must have been considerable. However, numerous molds for casting agricultural and military tools have come to light in excavations. Evidently, some refined metal was available locally, but perhaps most of it was imported. The metal was then heated and poured into the appropriate earthenware or pottery mold.<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to metals in the Bible, but especially to gold, silver, iron, and lead. While copper was widely used, it was normally in the form of its alloys, bronze and brass. There are comparatively few references to tin as such, though it was used in manufacturing bronze. Similarly zinc, though used in the manufacture of brass, is not mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>Gold is referred to hundreds of times in the OT and NT, more frequently than any other metal. It is often mentioned together with silver, and in the majority of cases silver is mentioned first, reflecting a time when gold was less valued.<\/p>\n<p>Gold was used in the manufacture of ornaments for personal use (Gn 24:53; 41:42; Ex 3:22; 11:2; 12:35). Gold was important in worship both in Israel and among the non-Israelites. References to pagan gods occur in several passages (Ex 20:23; 32:2-4; Ps 115:4; Is 2:20; 30:22; 31:7; 40:19; 46:6; Hos 8:4). It seems that the gold was melted down and later engraved so that the replicas could be called both molten images (Ex 32:24) and graven images. The tabernacle and the temple used a great deal of gold. The wooden ark was covered inside and outside with gold (25:11). Other timber pieces were overlaid with gold (25:11; 1 Kgs 6:20-22, 30).<\/p>\n<p>The vessels and utensils used in the tabernacle and temple were made of “pure gold”: the cherubim (Ex 25:18; 37:7), the mercy seat (25:17; 37:6), the candlestick (Ex 25:31; Zec 4:2), various vessels (Ex 25:38; 2 Kgs 24:13), chains to carry the ephod (Ex 28:14), and the bells on the high priest’s robe. The high priest’s crown, ephod, and breastplate were also of gold (39:2-30). The offerings collected for the manufacture of such articles in the wilderness include golden dishes weighing 120 shekels (Nm 7:86). The more lavishly adorned temple apparently used more gold than the tabernacle (1 Kgs 6:20-28; 1 Chr 29:2-7; 2 Chr 3:4–4:22). The number of specific references to gold in the tabernacle and temple is far too great to mention all of them here. The large amount of gold used in the temple was attractive to invaders, who would strip the temple of its gold and carry it off as booty (1 Kgs 14:26; 2 Kgs 16:8; 18:14; 24:13; 25:15; 2 Chr 12:9).<\/p>\n<p>Gold had commercial value. It was imported in Solomon’s day, and up to 666 talents were brought to Israel annually (1 Kgs 10:14). Hiram of Tyre gave Solomon 120 talents of gold (9:14), possibly as a loan. Certainly Solomon used a lot of gold in the temple (10:16-17). Gold was useful, too, for buying off an enemy (2 Kgs 16:8) or simply as tribute (18:14). Evidence of this comes also from the Assyrian annals, where the tribute taken from various lands often included gold.<\/p>\n<p>The possession of gold was not in itself an evil thing, but preoccupation with its accumulation was condemned (Jb 28:15-17; Prv 3:14; 8:10, 19; 16:16). The possession of wisdom and the knowledge of God was of greater value than the possession of much gold (Pss 19:10; 119:72, 127; Prv 20:15). Job rejected trust in gold (Jb 31:24). Gold would not save a man in the day of judgment (Zep 1:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT gold was regarded as perishable (Jas 5:3; 1 Pt 1:18) and as an unnecessary burden to carry (Mt 10:9; Acts 3:6). The wearing of a gold ring was certainly no measure of a man’s worth (Jas 2:2); indeed, both Paul and Peter forbade it (1 Tm 2:9; 1 Pt 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The use of gold in itself was no measure of piety. The elders of Revelation 4:4 wore golden crowns, but the great harlot was “bedecked with gold” (Rv 17:4), as was the harlot city Babylon (18:16). By contrast, there are some positive statements in the NT about the value of gold (3:18). The wise men brought gold to the infant Jesus as a symbol of his kingly character (Mt 2:11), and the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, was a city of gold, clear as glass (Rv 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, silver is mentioned in several connections. Being a precious metal, once considered more precious than gold, it was regularly used in commerce for the payments of debts. Small pieces of silver were weighed into a balance against a standard weight. Abraham bought the cave at Machpelah as a burial place for Sarah for 400 shekels of silver and weighed out the “money” according to the weight’s current value with the merchant (Gn 23:15-16). Joseph’s brothers received 20 pieces of silver in payment for Joseph (37:28), and Benjamin was given a money gift by Joseph in pieces of silver (45:22).<\/p>\n<p>There are other examples of payment in silver for commodities or services (Gn 20:16; Ex 21:32; Lv 27:16; Jos 24:32; Jgs 17:10; 2 Sm 24:24; Neh 7:72; Jb 28:15; Is 7:23; 46:6; Am 2:6; 8:6). Silver was a measure of a man’s wealth (Gn 13:2; 24:35; Ex 25:3; Nm 22:18; Dt 7:25; Zep 1:18; Hg 2:8; Zec 6:11). An unusual comment in 1 Kings 10:21 notes that in Solomon’s day “it was not considered as anything,” apparently because it was so plentiful. It was regularly taken as booty (Jos 6:19; 7:21; 1 Kgs 15:18). Sometimes the drinking cup of an important man was made of silver (Gn 44:2). Sometimes, too, a royal crown was made of gold and silver (Zec 6:11). It was important in the manufacture of personal ornaments (Gn 24:53; Ex 3:22; 12:35), and one example is given of ornaments of gold studded with silver (Sg 1:11).<\/p>\n<p>The process of refining silver was used as a metaphor for the trying of people’s hearts (Ps 66:10; Is 48:10), and the tarnishing and deterioration of silver was a picture of the disintegration of one’s character (Is 1:22; Jer 6:30). God’s Word is pictured as “pure” silver refined and purified in a furnace. Despite silver’s great value, wisdom excels it (Job 28:15; Prv 3:14; 8:19; 10:20; 16:16; 22:1; 25:11).<\/p>\n<p>Native copper is mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:9, though the reference may be to one of its ores. More commonly, biblical references are to brass, the alloy of copper and zinc. However, the chemical analysis of copper-based tools and implements during the middle and late Bronze Ages (c. 2000–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) shows that the material was bronze. References to brass in the <span>kjv<\/span> are therefore to bronze.<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, copper in the form of alloys (bronze and brass) was widely used. Bronze coinage was well known and this may be the sense of Matthew 10:9. The widow’s mite was a tiny bronze coin, the lepton. Bronze utensils and vessels were well known (Rv 9:20; 18:12). The reference to “sounding brass” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in 1 Corinthians 13:1 may actually be to brass, which was a bright, shining alloy, and was used in musical instruments. In the vision of John in Revelation (Rv 1:15; 2:18), the Son of Man had feet of fine brass (<span>nlt<\/span> “bronze”).<\/p>\n<p>The Iron Age began in Palestine about 1200 <span>BC<\/span>, that is, in the days of the judges, though native iron had been known in Egypt in the predynastic period. Archaeological evidence suggests that the smelting of iron ore was discovered by the Hittites about 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. The Philistines seem to have introduced iron to Palestine about 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. In the days of Moses an encounter with the Midianites produced much tribute, among which iron is mentioned (Nm 31:22). When Israel captured Jericho, the spoils included iron (Jos 6:24). Manasseh’s half-tribe also took booty including iron (22:8). In the days of the judges the Canaanites were equipped with chariots of iron (Jos 17:16-18; Jgs 1:19; 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>These early references point to the arrival of iron at the start of the Iron Age. The Philistines enjoyed a local monopoly in its use (1 Sm 13:19-21), and their mighty warrior Goliath was armed with an iron spear (17:7). It was not long, however, before Israel learned the use of iron (2 Sm 12:31; 23:7). Evidently, by Solomon’s time, iron was widely used, because builders of the temple were forbidden to use iron tools (1 Kgs 6:7). The false prophet Zedekiah in Ahab’s day used the horns of iron to thrust toward Syria as he spoke of their defeat (22:11).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> referred to iron (Is 10:34), and Jeremiah later spoke of the metal in several places (Jer 1:18; 6:28; 11:4; 15:12; 17:1; 28:13-14). Ezekiel made use of an iron plate in one of his symbolic actions (Ez 4:3), referred to iron in his description of smelting (22:18, 20), and listed it as a commodity for trade (27:12, 19). The prophet Amos spoke of threshing instruments of iron (Am 1:3). Micah used iron as a symbol for military might (Mi 4:13). The book of Daniel makes several references to it (Dn 2:33-35, 40-45; 4:15, 23; 7:7, 19).<\/p>\n<p>By Roman times, iron weapons were the regular implements of war. Gates of iron were used to close prisons (Acts 12:10), and in a symbolic usage powerful rulers were said to rule with a rod of iron (Rv 2:27; 9:9; 12:5; 19:15). The term “iron” was used also in some metaphorical expressions. The smelting of iron was a symbol of testing and suffering (Dt 4:20; 1 Kgs 8:51; Jer 11:4; Ez 22:18), a pillar of iron was symbolic of strength (Jer 1:18), and an iron rod of harsh rule (Ps 2:9; Rv 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Coppersmith; Goldsmith; Ironsmith; Mason, Masonry; Silversmith; Stones, Precious.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","summary_en":"MINERALS* AND METALS A “mineral” is a naturally occurring substance, normally an ore that must be mined and treated before the metal can be extracted. A “metal” is a chemical element such as iron or copper, which is free from contamination by other materials. Metals in a pure form generally do not occur in nature, though there are exceptions. In Palestine, mining and smelting are ancient arts, practiced long before the Israelites arrived. The quarrying of suitable stones, such as flint, for t...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":15740,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heart","title_en":"Heart","content_ro":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","summary_en":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27733,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"and Numerology*, Numbers","title_en":"and Numerology*, Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY*<\/h3>\n<p>Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern.<\/p>\n<p>Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mystical, pre-Christian Jewish groups, and later carried to extremes by the Kabbalists.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>• Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>• Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>• Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>• Numerology<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExpressionofNumbers\">Expression of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew, and indeed any other Semitic language, has a simple but adequate system of numeration. The number one is an adjective. After that, the numerals are nouns, in parallel masculine and feminine forms, although the masculine is used with the feminine noun and vice versa. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) exist alongside cardinal numbers (one, two, three), but as in most languages, the second set can be used instead of the first (“day two” instead of “second day”). From ten to nineteen, there is one composite form built like English “thirteen” (“three-ten”), but “twenty” is literally “tens” (the plural of “ten”). Thirty, forty, and so on are literally “threes,” “fours” (the plural of the words “three” and “four,” respectively) and so on, up to a hundred, which is a new word. There are also separate words for “thousand” and for “ten thousand,” as in Greek, Chinese, and many other languages. Larger numbers must be expressed by multiples of these (“ten thousand times ten thousand” and “thousands of thousands”), suggesting that large figures, rarely needed for small populations and tiny kingdoms, were expressed approximately. Hebrew has not only a singular and plural but also a dual form to express two of anything (two hundred, two thousand). Fractions (a half, a third, a tenth, etc.) could be expressed, and multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction were used. Indeed, instances of all four operations can be found in the Bible. The Hebrew mathematical system was basically part of the larger western Asian mathematical system, of which we know a great deal from Mesopotamia and Egypt. These countries, however, used a more highly developed mathematical system than Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaysofWritingNumerals\">Ways of Writing Numerals<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, numbers are always written out in words, as on the famous Moabite Stone and the Siloam Inscription. But every nation in the ancient world could also express numbers by using figures or ciphers of various kinds (like our 1, 2, 3, . . .). Because of this danger of error, in later days numbers were normally written out in full, in words, where confusion, although still possible, was not nearly so likely. An additional way of writing numbers, known both to the Hebrews and the Greeks, was the use of consecutive letters of the alphabet instead of consecutive numerals (as if we used A for 1, B for 2, etc.). This system, in wide use by NT times, is the usual system in modern Hebrew and has the advantage that numerical combinations can be pronounced by inserting arbitrary vowels, thus making artificial words. For example, if the number of the beast (Rv 13:18), 666, is expressed in alphabetical letters, it can spell out the consonants of “Nero Caesar,” although other names are possible, especially if the variant reading 616 is used.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProblemsofLargeNumbers\">Problems of Large Numbers<\/p>\n<p>Even allowing for all these possibilities, there remain certain problems connected with large numbers, particularly in the OT. The most obvious is that of the ten long-lived patriarchs, whose ages are recorded in Genesis 5. Different figures (varying by whole centuries) are recorded for their ages in the Hebrew text, the Samaritan text, and the earliest Greek translation (known as the Septuagint), but all figures are very large. Some interpret these figures literally and point out that there is a steady reduction from the ages attained by these patriarchs to the more modest 120 years allotted to man in Noah’s time (Gn 6:3) and the 70 years accepted later as the human life span (Ps 90:10). This would correspond to the progressive spiritual deterioration of mankind after the fall, from the perfect state of Adam to the present condition. Whatever the explanation of the figures, there is no doubt that this is the theological intent of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The large number of Israelites who left Egypt is also problematic. If there were actually 600,000 fighting men (Nm 1:46), this would correspond to a whole nation of some 2 million or more. Possibly the word translated “thousand” means “clan units”; it would clearly be a much smaller total body, whatever its exact size. Of course, God could have maintained any number of people in the desert. The evidence of archaeology as to the population of Canaan both before and after the Israelite onslaught seems to support a lower number. The same principle might explain the large numbers given for the fighting men of the various Israelite tribes, and the huge totals for Israel and Judah’s military strength given at later times in the historical books of the OT.<\/p>\n<p>To the ordinary Bible reader, perhaps one of the biggest problems is the different numbers recorded in Chronicles and Kings, when the same incidents are being described. Manuscript errors, or confusion of numbers written by signs or single letters of the alphabet, may account for numerous individual inconsistencies, but not for wholesale differences, particularly as the figures in Chronicles are consistently much larger. These very large round numbers may have symbolic significance and may not be intended to be taken in their literal sense at all. Indeed, since the Jews had before them the book of Kings and the book of Chronicles at the same time, they can hardly have taken both sets of numbers literally themselves.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CountingbyGenerations\">Counting by Generations<\/p>\n<p>One of the problems of the OT is that of the dating of events. Even with an exact number system, there is no absolute fixed point from which to reckon. Later Jews and Christians counted from the presumed date of the Creation. Not until after the time of David and Solomon are both internal reference between the comparative dates of kings of Judah and Israel and external reference to monarchs outside Israel used. This open-endedness accounts for the vague period of “forty years” used so often in the OT (e.g., the book of Judges) for any long but indeterminate period of time, almost certainly corresponding to a generation (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dor<\/span>). Counting by generations is specific in some places in the Bible and may be implicit in others. For instance, Abraham’s descendants are to return to Canaan “in the fourth generation” (Gn 15:16), and the genealogy of Christ is neatly constructed on a pattern of three groups of fourteen generations (Mt 1:17), rather than on periods of years. Wherever people use and recite genealogies, such counting by generations is natural. But Abraham’s descendants are said to have returned to Canaan approximately four centuries later (Gal 3:17), and therefore the word “generation” sometimes stands for 100 years. The Hebrew word for “generation” may mean 120 years (Gn 6:3). Usually, the ancient Hebrews used vague phrases like “in those days” or “after those days” or “the days are coming,” which expressed past, present, and future without any specific mention of number. In other words, the Bible writers were more concerned with theology than with mathematics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApproximateUseofNumbers\">Approximate Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, Israel’s 40 years in the desert is a good example of the approximate use of numbers (Nm 14:33). In the NT, Jesus was in the wilderness 40 days during the temptation (Mt 4:2), and there were 40 days between his resurrection and ascension (Acts 1:3). Moses was 40 years old at his call (Acts 7:23), apparently lived 40 years in Midian (Ex 7:7), and spent 40 years leading Israel out of Egypt and through the desert (Dt 34:7), for he is said to be 120 years old at his death. However, two generations of 40 years is the normal maximum for a healthy man (Ps 90:10), and even this is often shortened to 70 years by the rigors of life. Seventy is also used at times in this approximate sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolicUseofNumbers\">Symbolic Use of Numbers<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture, seven symbolizes completeness or perfection. On the seventh day God rested from his labors and creation is finished (Gn 2:2). Pharaoh in his dream saw seven cattle coming from the Nile (41:2). Samson’s sacred Nazirite locks were braided in seven plaits (Jgs 16:13). Seven devils left Mary of Magdala, signifying the totality of her previous possession by Satan (Lk 8:2); “seven other devils” will enter the purified but vacant life of a person (Mt 12:45). However, on the positive side, there were the seven spirits of God (Rv 3:1). In the seventh year the Hebrew slave was to be freed (Ex 21:2), having completed his time of captivity and service. Every seventh year was a sabbatical year (Lv 25:4). Seven times seven reiterates the sense of completeness. In the Year of Jubilee (at the completion of 7 x 7 years = the 50th year), all land is freed and returns to the original owners (Lv 25:10). Pentecost, the Feast of Weeks, is seven times seven days after Passover. “Seventy,” which is literally “sevens” in Hebrew, strengthens the concept of perfection. There are 70 elders (Ex 24:1) in Israel. Israel was exiled to Babylon for 70 years (Jer 25:12) to complete its punishment. “Seventy times seven” (Mt 18:22) reiterates this still further. The Lord was not giving Peter a mathematical number of times that he should forgive another person, but rather was insisting on limitless forgiveness for a brother’s sin.<\/p>\n<p>“Three” may well share in this meaning of completion or perfection, although not so forcibly (2 Kgs 13:18). Many things happen “on the third day” (Hos 6:2). Jonah spent three days in the stomach of the fish (Mt 12:40), and the Lord rose again on the third day (1 Cor 15:4). David was offered a choice of divine punishments—three years, three months, three days (2 Sm 24:13). For the Christian, “three” takes on a far deeper significance as the number of Persons of the Trinity. The three Persons are clearly expressed, for instance, in the Great Commission (Mt 28:19) and in the Pauline benediction (2 Cor 13:13). Many echoes of this threefold expression are in the NT, and many anticipations of it in the OT, of which the thrice-repeated “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3 is the most famous.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars see four as another symbol of completeness (four winds of heaven, Dn 7:2; four horsemen, Rv 6:1-7; four living creatures around the throne of God, Rv 4:6). Five is certainly used in an indefinite sense as a small number (Is 19:18; 30:17). Nor do eight or nine seem to have any special significance, although, like other numbers, they may be used in a factual sense to describe any of God’s activities (nine plagues on Egypt, Ex 7–10). “Ten” does have significance because of the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1-17), but not any special symbolism earlier in the Bible. If anything, “ten” is elsewhere used in a vague way. Laban changes Jacob’s wages ten times (Gn 31:7); Daniel and his friends are ten times better than all other students (Dn 1:20); ten times over, the Jewish settlers will be warned of impending enemy attacks (Neh 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>Eleven appears to have no special biblical significance, but 12 certainly has. The clearest proof of this is the existence of the 12 tribes in Israel. In Revelation 7:4-8, where it is mathematically important that the number of tribes be limited to 12, the tribe of Dan is altogether omitted—probably on account of Dan’s sin of idolatry (Jgs 18:14-20). Ishmael’s descendants were also divided into 12 clans (Gn 17:20), so that the number 12 was apparently significant outside Israel as well. In the NT Christ chose 12 apostles (Mt 10:1-4). The link with the number of tribes is made specific when Christ tells the apostles that they will sit on 12 thrones, judging the 12 tribes (Mt 19:28). However, it is interesting that, after the election and appointment of Matthias (Acts 1:26), the Christian church apparently made no subsequent efforts to maintain the number of apostles. Like “seven times seven,” “twelve times twelve” increases the force of the number. When this is further multiplied by a thousand, the figure becomes the 144,000 redeemed (Rv 7:4), who were sealed “out of all the tribes of Israel.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ExactStatistics\">Exact Statistics<\/p>\n<p>As distinct from the metaphorical use of numbers to denote completion, immensity, and the like, numbers in Hebrew were often used to give exact tallies or measurements. Such usage is known to us only from clay tablets and ostraca (broken pieces of potsherd engraved in ink, used as rough notebooks). However, ascertaining exactly what the text was in its earliest form and what that text means is difficult.<\/p>\n<p>An example is the number of the sons of Jeconiah among the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh. They were struck down by the Lord because of their failure to rejoice with the others when God’s ark returned to Israel from the Philistine country (1 Sm 6:19). The Greek text (LXX) reads “seventy”; the later Hebrew manuscripts add “fifty thousand.” But, as Beth-shemesh itself was only a small frontier town, and the “sons of Jeconiah” was presumably only one clan among several, the smaller number is obviously the original, and the large addition due to some later manuscript confusion.<\/p>\n<p>A good rule in trying to decide whether a number is statistical or impressionistic is to determine whether it is a small number, or an unusual number for which there is no obvious theological explanation. When the men of Ai killed some 36 Israelites at the first assault on the city (Jos 7:5), the smallness of the number is evidence that this is a vividly remembered factual detail. Similarly, in the case of the number of Abraham’s 318 men (Gn 14:14) or the catch of 153 fish after the resurrection (Jn 21:11), the numbers, though large, are not round numbers but unusual combinations, and are obviously meant in a literal or statistical sense. Irrelevant details like this have a habit of remaining in the memory, and are the best guarantee of the trustworthiness of the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Numerology\">Numerology<\/p>\n<p>Numerology may be said to be an extended application of the metaphorical significance of numbers (7, 40, etc.) already discussed. In the Bible, this systematization of numbers always goes with a strong sense of the sovereignty of God, his control over human history, and a belief in his ongoing purpose and its triumphant conclusion.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the first clear instance of numerology in the Bible is 1 Kings 6:1, where Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the exodus, a period 5 times 10 times 12, or 4 times 120, the ideal life span of man in early days (Gn 6:3). First Chronicles 6:3-8 gives 12 generations of men (presumably 40 years each) to cover the same period, so “twelve generations” is probably the real basis for the computation, rather than any exact year-by-year tally. A tally would have been impossible in the days of the judges and unlikely before the monarchy. David was the first to establish an official scribe or recorder to keep daily annals in Israel (2 Sm 8:16-17), as was common in the great kingdoms from far earlier times. Such Israelite annals are later mentioned as sources of the books of the kings (2 Kgs 14:18). The number 480 is probably a rough approximation rather than exact and denotes the end of one of God’s epochs.<\/p>\n<p>When Jeremiah prophesies an exile of 70 years for Judah (Jer 25:11; 29:10), it is not only a historical prediction that was literally fulfilled but also a symbol of completeness; Judah’s punishment is complete (cf. Is 40:2). Isaiah (Is 23:15) had made a similar prophecy of a 70-year punishment for Tyre, and Ezekiel (Ez 29:11-13) prophesied a 40-year “exile” for Egypt. When these 70 years are regarded as sabbatical years, where the land must lie untilled to compensate for the 7 times 70 years of sin before, then true numerology begins (2 Chr 36:21). Here numerology is used only as an explanation of past and present, but it can also be used to explain the future, especially in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel (Dn 9:2) refers to the literal 70 years of the exile as foretold by Jeremiah. In Daniel 9:24, this has been extended to 70 weeks of years (490 years) applied to the distant future. Daniel 9:25 sees 69 of these (483 years) as elapsing before Messiah appears. Presumably, the last week of the 70 is therefore thought of as the time of his activity. However this may be interpreted in terms of actual dates, it must be harmonized with 9:26, where the Messiah is “cut off” after 62 weeks of years (434 years). The difficulty lies in establishing the starting point for this long period. This is an example of an elaborate numerology, embracing centuries of history, all ultimately based on the 70 years of Jeremiah. According to biblical principles, this can have both an “immediate” fulfillment in the return from exile, and a “prophetic” fulfillment in the far distant future in connection with the coming of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The other major example of extended numerology in Daniel is in connection with the “time, times, and half a time” (7:25). This must stand for three and a half “times,” that is, half of seven “times.” Thus, it refers either to three and a half years (half a “week” of years) or three and a half “weeks” of years (cf. “seven times” in 4:16, where “seven years” is clearly meant). Whatever may be its ultimate prophetic fulfillment in Christ, the “initial” or “partial” fulfillment is the roughly three and a half years of bitter persecution of God’s people by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 <span>BC<\/span>). This figure of three and a half years reappears in Revelation 11:2 (“forty-two months”), and 12:14 (“a time, and times, and half a time”), to describe the period of Rome’s persecution of the Christian church. The figure had possibly become a symbol of any bitter but limited persecution. The “two thousand three hundred evenings and mornings” of Daniel 8:14 may mean 1,150 days, which is approximately the same length of time.<\/p>\n<p>The three and a half years of Daniel 7:25 reappear in Revelation 11 in the form of “forty-two months,” the time when the heathen will trample down Jerusalem (Rv 11:2). The 1,290 days of Daniel 12:11 reappear here (in the slightly different form of 1,260 days) as the time that God’s two witnesses will prophesy (Rv 11:3). The 42 months reappear in Revelation 13:5 as the period that the wild beast will be allowed to blaspheme. While the “thousand years” of 20:6 is not derived from Daniel at all, the metaphorical use of “thousand” is familiar to the OT. The closest direct parallel is in Deuteronomy 7:9, where God’s covenant will be kept with a “thousand generations” to come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","summary_en":"NUMBERS AND NUMEROLOGY* Individual numbers have a symbolic as well as a literal sense in the Bible. In Daniel, and to a lesser extent in Revelation, there is a developed system of numerology where interrelated systems of numbers are used in a definite pattern. Traditionally, conservative Christians have been suspicious of numerology because of its unwise use by groups of Christians who see theological symbolism in every number in the OT, even the most factual. This view was inherited from mys...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53492,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","summary_en":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81118,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","summary_en":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108744,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","summary_en":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136370,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:16<\/strong> <em>Seven periods of time<\/em> may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • <em>mind of a wild animal:<\/em> See 4:31-33.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","summary_en":"4:16 Seven periods of time may refer to a seven-year period (cp. 7:25; 9:24-25). • mind of a wild animal: See 4:31-33.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67986,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95612,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123238,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150864,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":53493,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","summary_en":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81119,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","summary_en":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108745,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","summary_en":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136371,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:17<\/strong> <em>the Most High rules:<\/em> God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, <em>even to the lowliest<\/em> (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","summary_en":"4:17 the Most High rules: God distributes kingship and kingdoms to whomever he will, even to the lowliest (e.g., Joseph, Gen 41:41-57; David, 1 Sam 16—2 Sam 5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64457,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92083,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119709,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147335,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":9863,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Dreams","title_en":"Dreams","content_ro":"<h3>DREAMS<\/h3>\n<p>Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientUnderstanding\">Ancient Understanding<\/p>\n<p>From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient recorded dreams focused on three main areas: religion, politics, and personal destiny. Religious dreams called for piety and devotion to the gods. Political dreams supposedly forecast the outcome of battles and the future destiny of nations. Personal dreams guided family decisions and presaged serious crises.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes the god took the initiative and forewarned the person about something unexpected. Sometimes the ruler or general would go to a pagan temple or holy place and sleep there, hoping to bring on a dream that would help him cope with some serious problem. In some dreams the message was clear; more often it had to be discovered by individuals who specialized in dream interpretation. Records were kept concerning specific dreams and the subsequent events.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentUse\">Old Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>Dreams played an important part in the lives of God’s people. Of the nearly 120 references to dreams in the OT, 52 come in Genesis during the early patriarchal period and 29 in the book of Daniel. In reality, however, only 14 specific dreams are recorded in the OT. Most of them are in Genesis and reflect God’s direct revelation to the patriarchs. Even Daniel tells about only two of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams—the large, manlike image and the gigantic tree chopped down—and his own dream about the four beasts and the Ancient of Days.<\/p>\n<p>The OT understanding of dreams had several significant features. Like the rest of the ancient world, people of God believed that God communicated in dreams. Yet there is in the OT accounts a reserve that is lacking in the perverse and obscene scenes often described in pagan dream records. Another distinction is that God is the initiator; he gives the revelatory dreams when, where, and to whom he pleases—a truth painfully learned by Saul (1 Sm 28:6, 15). More significantly, the secular approach to interpretation was specifically rejected. Understanding of dream symbols came not by research in dream books or by natural human ability. When Joseph interpreted the dreams of his two Egyptian fellow prisoners and later of the pharaoh himself, he insisted on giving full credit to God (Gn 40:8; 41:7, 25, 28, 39). Similarly, Daniel informed Nebuchadnezzar that the God in heaven who reveals secrets would make known the king’s dream and its meaning, in which task professional dream interpreters had failed (Dn 2:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>Unlike their neighbors, the OT saints knew that a dream was a “vision of the night” (Jb 33:15), and figuratively represented the spiritual realm (Jb 20:8; Pss 73:20; 126:1; Is 29:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God used dreams in OT days to protect his servants (Gn 20), to reveal himself to people in a special way (28:12), to provide guidance in specific circumstances (31:10-13), and to forewarn about personal future events (37:5-20). Dreams were also used to predict the history of nations (chs 40–41) and to foretell the four great successive world empires that would be replaced by God’s eternal kingdom (Dn 4:19-27).<\/p>\n<p>During the approximately 1,000 years between Joseph and Daniel, only two dreams are recorded. One assured Gideon that God would defeat the Midianites (Jgs 7:13-15); the other concerns how Solomon became so wise after his humble, unselfish request for “an understanding heart” (1 Kgs 3:9, 15) thoroughly pleased God.<\/p>\n<p>In the final OT dreams, God gave Nebuchadnezzar an overview of future world history (Dn 2:31-45) and a prediction of the king’s temporary insanity (4:19-27). Daniel’s dream of the four beasts was similar to the king’s first dreams, but with added details concerning future international relations (7:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Dreams were seen as one means by which God would speak to prophets (Nm 12:6). But how could the people of God distinguish a true prophet from an imposter? God gave two tests: the ability to predict the immediate future (Dt 18:22) and the consistency of the message with previously revealed truth (13:1-4). False prophets were put to death (v 5). False prophecy was a serious problem in the days of Jeremiah (Jer 23:25-32) and Zechariah (Zec 10:2). Despite repeated warnings by Jeremiah (Jer 23:32; 27:9-10; 29:8-9), the people preferred to listen to the false prophets with their empty messages of hope. Dreams were also a part of Israel’s prophetic hope (Jl 2:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentUse\">New Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>The few specific dreams in the NT all come from Matthew, five of these in the first two chapters. They emphasize the divine care and protection of the baby Jesus. First, there was God’s provision that Jesus would grow up in a home with a father and mother and thus avoid the cruelty and shame of being unjustly called an illegitimate child (Mt 1:19-23). Then the wise men were instructed in a dream not to tell Herod where Jesus was living (2:12). Jesus was further protected from jealous King Herod by the dream that told Joseph to flee to Egypt with Mary and the child (v 13). On Herod’s death, Joseph was divinely advised in a dream to return home from Egypt (v 20). Finally, God warned Joseph to avoid Judea, where Herod’s evil son Archelaus reigned, and to settle in Galilee instead (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>The only other specific dream mentioned in the NT prompted Pilate’s wife to warn her husband, “Don’t have anything to do with that innocent man” (Mt 27:19, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophecy; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DREAMS<\/h3>\n<p>Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AncientUnderstanding\">Ancient Understanding<\/p>\n<p>From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient recorded dreams focused on three main areas: religion, politics, and personal destiny. Religious dreams called for piety and devotion to the gods. Political dreams supposedly forecast the outcome of battles and the future destiny of nations. Personal dreams guided family decisions and presaged serious crises.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes the god took the initiative and forewarned the person about something unexpected. Sometimes the ruler or general would go to a pagan temple or holy place and sleep there, hoping to bring on a dream that would help him cope with some serious problem. In some dreams the message was clear; more often it had to be discovered by individuals who specialized in dream interpretation. Records were kept concerning specific dreams and the subsequent events.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentUse\">Old Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>Dreams played an important part in the lives of God’s people. Of the nearly 120 references to dreams in the OT, 52 come in Genesis during the early patriarchal period and 29 in the book of Daniel. In reality, however, only 14 specific dreams are recorded in the OT. Most of them are in Genesis and reflect God’s direct revelation to the patriarchs. Even Daniel tells about only two of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams—the large, manlike image and the gigantic tree chopped down—and his own dream about the four beasts and the Ancient of Days.<\/p>\n<p>The OT understanding of dreams had several significant features. Like the rest of the ancient world, people of God believed that God communicated in dreams. Yet there is in the OT accounts a reserve that is lacking in the perverse and obscene scenes often described in pagan dream records. Another distinction is that God is the initiator; he gives the revelatory dreams when, where, and to whom he pleases—a truth painfully learned by Saul (1 Sm 28:6, 15). More significantly, the secular approach to interpretation was specifically rejected. Understanding of dream symbols came not by research in dream books or by natural human ability. When Joseph interpreted the dreams of his two Egyptian fellow prisoners and later of the pharaoh himself, he insisted on giving full credit to God (Gn 40:8; 41:7, 25, 28, 39). Similarly, Daniel informed Nebuchadnezzar that the God in heaven who reveals secrets would make known the king’s dream and its meaning, in which task professional dream interpreters had failed (Dn 2:27-28).<\/p>\n<p>Unlike their neighbors, the OT saints knew that a dream was a “vision of the night” (Jb 33:15), and figuratively represented the spiritual realm (Jb 20:8; Pss 73:20; 126:1; Is 29:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>God used dreams in OT days to protect his servants (Gn 20), to reveal himself to people in a special way (28:12), to provide guidance in specific circumstances (31:10-13), and to forewarn about personal future events (37:5-20). Dreams were also used to predict the history of nations (chs 40–41) and to foretell the four great successive world empires that would be replaced by God’s eternal kingdom (Dn 4:19-27).<\/p>\n<p>During the approximately 1,000 years between Joseph and Daniel, only two dreams are recorded. One assured Gideon that God would defeat the Midianites (Jgs 7:13-15); the other concerns how Solomon became so wise after his humble, unselfish request for “an understanding heart” (1 Kgs 3:9, 15) thoroughly pleased God.<\/p>\n<p>In the final OT dreams, God gave Nebuchadnezzar an overview of future world history (Dn 2:31-45) and a prediction of the king’s temporary insanity (4:19-27). Daniel’s dream of the four beasts was similar to the king’s first dreams, but with added details concerning future international relations (7:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Dreams were seen as one means by which God would speak to prophets (Nm 12:6). But how could the people of God distinguish a true prophet from an imposter? God gave two tests: the ability to predict the immediate future (Dt 18:22) and the consistency of the message with previously revealed truth (13:1-4). False prophets were put to death (v 5). False prophecy was a serious problem in the days of Jeremiah (Jer 23:25-32) and Zechariah (Zec 10:2). Despite repeated warnings by Jeremiah (Jer 23:32; 27:9-10; 29:8-9), the people preferred to listen to the false prophets with their empty messages of hope. Dreams were also a part of Israel’s prophetic hope (Jl 2:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentUse\">New Testament Use<\/p>\n<p>The few specific dreams in the NT all come from Matthew, five of these in the first two chapters. They emphasize the divine care and protection of the baby Jesus. First, there was God’s provision that Jesus would grow up in a home with a father and mother and thus avoid the cruelty and shame of being unjustly called an illegitimate child (Mt 1:19-23). Then the wise men were instructed in a dream not to tell Herod where Jesus was living (2:12). Jesus was further protected from jealous King Herod by the dream that told Joseph to flee to Egypt with Mary and the child (v 13). On Herod’s death, Joseph was divinely advised in a dream to return home from Egypt (v 20). Finally, God warned Joseph to avoid Judea, where Herod’s evil son Archelaus reigned, and to settle in Galilee instead (v 22).<\/p>\n<p>The only other specific dream mentioned in the NT prompted Pilate’s wife to warn her husband, “Don’t have anything to do with that innocent man” (Mt 27:19, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophecy; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DREAMS Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored. Ancient Understanding From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods. Ancient recorded dreams focused on th...","summary_en":"DREAMS Thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep. Dreams have always fascinated people; the events experienced in dreams are too vivid and real to be ignored. Ancient Understanding From the earliest times people viewed dreams as a mystery, provoking speculation about another actual sphere of existence in which the person lived and acted while the body slept. Dreams, especially those of emperors and kings, were held to be messages from the gods. Ancient recorded dreams focused on th...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":53494,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:22","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","summary_en":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81120,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:22","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","summary_en":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108746,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:22","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","summary_en":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136372,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:22","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:22<\/strong> The <em>tree<\/em> is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • <em>your greatness reaches up to heaven:<\/em> Cp. Gen 11:1-9.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","summary_en":"4:22 The tree is a haven of sustenance, rest, and safety for the world (cp. Gen 2:15-17; Rev 22:14). • your greatness reaches up to heaven: Cp. Gen 11:1-9.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":53495,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","summary_en":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81121,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","summary_en":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108747,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","summary_en":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136373,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:23","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:23<\/strong> <em>Cut down the tree:<\/em> The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","summary_en":"4:23 Cut down the tree: The tree must be cut down because of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride (4:27-30).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67987,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95613,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123239,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150865,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Symbolic Numbers","title_en":"Symbolic Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Numbers<\/h3>\n<p>Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events.<\/p>\n<p>The number <em>one<\/em> can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). <em>Two<\/em> is the minimum number required to give a legitimate witness (Deut 17:6; Rev 11:3), and <em>three<\/em> can imply divine representation (Gen 18:1-2; 2 Cor 13:14; Rev 1:4-5). <em>Four<\/em> can stand for the known world, represented in Revelation by living creatures, horsemen, winds, and angels (Rev 4:6-8; 6:1-8; 7:1) and in Genesis by <em>four<\/em> rivers (Gen 2:10-14). When <em>three<\/em> and <em>four<\/em> are added to make <em>seven,<\/em> they represent perfection or divine fulfillment, indicating that God and the world are in harmony. The multiplication of <em>three<\/em> by <em>four<\/em> yields <em>twelve,<\/em> the number associated with God’s people (Gen 35:22-26; Exod 24:4; 28:21; Num 17:2; Josh 4:3-8; 1 Kgs 18:31; Matt 10:1-4; 19:28; Jas 1:1; Rev 12:1; 21:12–22:2. The number <em>five<\/em> and its multiples, such as <em>ten,<\/em> represent human completeness (e.g., <em>five<\/em> fingers per hand); and <em>six<\/em> carries a negative sense or implication of evil, being neither humanly complete (<em>five<\/em>) nor divinely complete (<em>seven<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p>Multiples of <em>ten<\/em> (e.g., <em>forty<\/em>) are a symbolic way to indicate <em>many<\/em>, whereas <em>three sixes<\/em> (666) imply supreme evil (Rev 13:18). <em>One thousand<\/em> is regarded as the foundational large number; 12,000 indicates a large number of God’s people (Rev 7:5-8); and 144,000 represents the complete people of God (Rev 7:4; 14:1). The number 10,000 and its multiples are probably best transliterated from Greek as <em>myriads<\/em>, since they really mean “a huge number” rather than a precise count.<\/p>\n<p>While some of the numbers in the Bible have symbolic meanings, using numbers to speculate on the time of Christ’s return or of the end of the world is highly dubious—only God possesses that knowledge (Mark 13:32). God did not intend for the symbolic numbers in Revelation to help us predict the future; rather, their symbolic meanings help to explain the significance of the visions. Because the numbers are symbolic, sometimes when we translate them into contemporary sizes, distances, and numbers for our ease of reading, it can result in the loss of theological significance. The use of these symbolic numbers can illuminate a vision’s relationship to the world or to the people of God.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:2-3; 4:15; 15:13; 41:53-54; Exod 20:6; 25:31-37; 32:15; Lev 16:14; 23:16; 2 Sam 24:13; 1 Kgs 4:26; 17:21; 18:31, 43-44; Job 1:2; Ps 90:4; Jer 15:3; 49:36; Ezek 14:21; Dan 4:16, 23-25; 7:3, 17, 24; Zech 4:2; 6:1; Matt 10:1-5; 12:40; 18:21-22; Mark 6:7; Luke 15:8; Acts 6:3; 10:16; 1 Cor 8:6; Eph 4:4-6; 2 Pet 3:8; Rev 1:16; 2:10; 4:4; 6:1; 7:1, 4-8; 12:1, 3; 13:1; 17:3-14; 20:2-7; 21:12-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","summary_en":"Symbolic Numbers Numbers used in Scripture have often inspired wild speculation. An understanding of the symbolism of numbers in the ancient world can help ground our interpretation. Such symbolism, however, is not rigid or exact, so great care must be exercised when numbers are used in interpretation, so as not to push fanciful predictions about future events. The number one can refer to God’s oneness (Deut 6:4; Gal 3:20; Jas 2:19). Two is the minimum number required to give a legitimate wit...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":53496,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","summary_en":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81122,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","summary_en":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108748,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","summary_en":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136374,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:25-26<\/strong> <em>until you learn that the Most High rules:<\/em> God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","summary_en":"4:25-26 until you learn that the Most High rules: God’s goal was proper recognition of God’s rule.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64775,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92401,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120027,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147653,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":8542,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Daniel (Person)","title_en":"Daniel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","summary_en":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53497,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","summary_en":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81123,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","summary_en":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108749,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","summary_en":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136375,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:27<\/strong> <em>Stop sinning and do what is right:<\/em> Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • <em>be merciful to the poor:<\/em> This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 <span>BC<\/span>), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and the oppressed. • <em>Perhaps then:<\/em> Daniel recognized that God was free to act or not act (cp. Dan 3:16-18); because he is a merciful God, he might take pity on the condemned king (cp. Exod 32:30; 1 Sam 14:6; 2 Sam 12:22; Joel 2:14; Amos 5:15; Zeph 2:3; 2 Tim 2:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","summary_en":"4:27 Stop sinning and do what is right: Righteousness and justice exalt a nation and extend the reign of a king; the lack of it dooms a people. Daniel humbly pled with the king to change his ways. • be merciful to the poor: This was a requirement of God’s law (Exod 23:6-11; Deut 15:10-11; Prov 29:14; 31:9) as well as Babylon’s. A former great king of Babylon, Hammurabi (about 1792–1750 BC), claimed to have been charged by his god Marduk to shepherd and protect the orphaned, the widowed, and t...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64739,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92365,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119991,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147617,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"What Is Good","title_en":"What Is Good","content_ro":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>What Is Good<\/h3>\n<p>Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relationship with him and in their relationships with each other. As they are motivated by love, their actions will be marked by justice, mercy, and humility. God’s people are not to oppress others, but to do what is just, righteous, and honest toward one another.<\/p>\n<p>Micah 6:8 summarizes what God had already made known in the past to Israel: Humility, faith, and obedience are pleasing to him. God declared this message to Abraham (Gen 15:6; 17:1, 9), to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23), through his prophets (e.g., Deut 6:1-8; Hos 6:6), and through Israel’s wise men (Prov 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>It pleases God when his people walk humbly in faith before him, as exemplified by Moses (Num 12:3), Habakkuk (Hab 3:17-19), Daniel (Dan 9:1-19), and Ezra (Ezra 9:5-15). Real spirituality and devotion result in doing good, seeking justice, relieving oppression, defending orphans, and aiding widows (see Exod 22:21-24; 23:2-12; Deut 15:4-11; 24:12-15; Neh 5:1-13; Jer 22:16; Dan 4:27; Amos 5:7-24; Jas 1:27). These acts are marks of God’s own character (Ps 146:9; Matt 11:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:19; 34:6-7; Deut 8:3; 16:19-20; 1 Kgs 3:11; Ezra 7:25; Neh 9:31; Isa 2:9; 5:15; 30:18; 38:15; Dan 9:18; Hos 6:6; Amos 5:12, 15; Mic 6:8; Mal 2:17; 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","summary_en":"What Is Good Micah 6:8, a well-known and oft-memorized verse, answers a series of questions put forth by a confused people who had lost their moral and spiritual bearings. The people of Israel wanted to know what they could do to be acceptable to the Lord. In an oppressive and deceitful society, they had lost their sense of what the Lord regards as good. God gave them a concrete answer: He is not seeking mechanical, ritualistic worship (6:6-7), but that his people do what is right in relation...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":41947,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41967,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69573,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69593,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97199,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97219,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124825,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124845,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27168,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","content_ro":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","summary_en":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53498,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","summary_en":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81124,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","summary_en":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108750,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","summary_en":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136376,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:28-33<\/strong> Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","summary_en":"4:28-33 Because Daniel’s warning went unheeded, the dream became reality.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"30":[{"id":6203,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Chaldea*, Chaldeans","title_en":"Chaldea*, Chaldeans","content_ro":"<h3>CHALDEA*, CHALDEANS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient region in Mesopotamia and its inhabitants. The name comes from the Chaldean (or Kaldu) tribes that shared Babylonia in southeastern Mesopotamia with several other peoples, especially the Sumerians and Akkadians. After the old Babylonian Empire was absorbed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership took control and built a Neo-Babylonian Empire that dominated the Near East for nearly a century. The region called Chaldea is also associated with the patriarch Abraham, whose Mesopotamian home was “Ur of the Chaldeans” (Gn 11:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandandPeople\">The Land and People<\/p>\n<p>Until the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Chaldea referred only to a small territory in southern Babylonia. Within 100 years, following a rapid and successful bid for power, it embraced all of Babylonia. At that time it included the territory from Baghdad on the Tigris River to the Persian Gulf and extended up the Euphrates River as far as the city of Hit. Although Chaldea is usually placed between the Tigris and Euphrates, it reached into the flatlands between the Tigris and the Zagros Mountains to the east and also included some land west of the Euphrates. The Arabian Desert formed its western boundary. Chaldea rarely exceeded 40 miles (64.4 kilometers) in width, having an area of about 8,000 square miles (12,872 square kilometers), approximately the size of New Jersey. On today’s map Chaldea falls inside Iraq, with its southwestern tip touching the small kingdom of Kuwait.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>First mention of the Chaldeans is found in the Assyrian annals of Ashurnasirpal II (885–860 <span>BC<\/span>), leading some authorities to suggest that they entered Babylonia about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>. They are usually associated (though not identified) with the Semitic Aramean tribes who were constantly pushing their way from the western deserts into Mesopotamia. They settled primarily in the southern tip of Babylonia, at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, perhaps centuries before the Assyrian annals mentioned them.<\/p>\n<p>Job 1:17 mentions three bands of Chaldeans who participated in a raid against Job’s camels and servants, probably in the vicinity of Edom or northern Arabia. Their presence in those regions does not necessarily mean they lived nearby, since armies from Babylonia (Sinar) and Elam ranged as far as Palestine centuries earlier (Gn 14:1-2).<\/p>\n<h5>Under Assyrian Rule<\/h5>\n<p>Living by the marshes and lakes of the extreme south, the Chaldeans maintained a high degree of independence, even when Assyrian dominion extended over them. It was difficult for invading armies to maneuver in the Chaldean marshes. As a result, the Chaldeans resisted paying taxes or providing any form of service to the Assyrian government. When the Assyrians sought to limit their freedom, the Chaldeans turned to guerrilla warfare and political intrigue. They were quick to disregard treaties or to switch alliances as circumstances dictated. Under Assyrian rule, whereas the native residents of Babylonian cities were generally content, the Chaldeans became the leaders of a national independence movement. For 250 years the Assyrians had to enforce their dominion against persistent Chaldean attempts to assert their autonomy and influence.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in 721 <span>BC<\/span> the Chaldean leader Marduk-apla-iddina II (known as Merodach-baladan in 2 Kgs 20:12 and Is 39:1, who sent an embassy to Hezekiah, king of Judah) entered Babylon and claimed the kingship of Babylonia, a position long appointed by the Assyrian king. Crafty and resourceful, he successfully maintained his claim for 10 years before being driven back into his own southern territory by Assyria’s Sargon II. On Sargon’s death in 705 <span>BC<\/span>, he reasserted his claim but was defeated by the new Assyrian king, Sennacherib, who destroyed Babylon as a lesson to the Chaldeans and their allies.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib’s son and successor, Esarhaddon, pursued a policy of conciliation with the Babylonians and rebuilt their capital city, a gesture that effectively neutralized Chaldean agitation and inaugurated a period of peace that lasted over 30 years. The last unsuccessful revolt occurred under Ashurbanipal’s reign and was actually instigated by his brother, whom the Assyrian king had appointed to the Babylonian throne. The Chaldeans gladly joined the rebellion, which was crushed in 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>The Neo-Babylonian Empire<\/h5>\n<p>Two decades later, at the time of Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyrian power suddenly and dramatically slipped. Nabopolassar, a Chaldean governor, took the opportunity to drive the Assyrians out of Babylonia. He became king of Babylon in 625 <span>BC<\/span>. Allied with the Medes, the Babylonians went on to destroy the Assyrian Empire, capturing the capital cities of Asshur in 614 and Nineveh in 612. They divided the conquered lands with the Medes and annexed the Assyrian regions west and south of the Tigris, creating a new Babylonian Empire. (The first Babylonian Empire, with which Hammurabi is associated, had flourished over 1,000 years earlier.) Throughout the Near East, Chaldea and Babylonia became synonymous.<\/p>\n<p>During the long and brilliant reign of Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar (or Nebuchadrezzar) II, the empire reached its zenith. As crown prince, he won a decisive victory in 605 <span>BC<\/span> over the Egyptians at Carchemish (the battle mentioned in 2 Chr 35:20), which effectively established Babylonian supremacy in the Near East (see 2 Kgs 24:7). That same year the southern kingdom of Judah became a vassal nation to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar won the submission of King Jehoiachim, carried off the choicest articles from the temple for his own temple in Babylon, and took the outstanding leaders and youth of Judah captive (2 Kgs 24:1; 2 Chr 36:5-7; Dn 1:1-4). When Judah revolted several years later at the instigation of Egypt, the Chaldean army captured Jerusalem in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. Judah’s new king, Jehoiachin, was deposed at that time together with more of its leaders (2 Kgs 24:8-16). A second revolt in 594 <span>BC<\/span> by the Chaldean-appointed king (Zedekiah) resulted in a third invasion, the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, and the exile of most of Judah’s citizens (2 Kgs 24:20–25:12; 2 Chr 36:11-21). With the booty from that and other conquests, Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon into one of the most dazzling cities in the ancient world. His projects included the Hanging Gardens (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), the Ishtar Gate, and a 17-mile (27-kilometer) outer wall designed for defense of the city. His pride in such accomplishments eventually brought the judgment of God (Dn 4:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son Amel-marduk (Evil-merodach in 2 Kgs 25:27 and Jer 52:31, remembered there for his special kindness to the exiled king Jehoiachin). After two years he was killed in an armed rebellion led by his brother-in-law, Nergal-shar-usur (Nergal-sharezer of Jer 39:3), who attempted to establish his own dynasty. After a four-year reign Nergal-shar-usur was succeeded by his son, who lasted only a few months before being ousted by a usurper, Nabonidus.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Fall of Babylon<\/h5>\n<p>Nabonidus was the last of the Chaldean monarchs. His installation as king was supported by many Babylonian officials. They were watching their former allies, the Medes, gradually become a rival power and saw in Nabonidus a ruler strong enough to meet their threat. Strong or not, his attempts to reform Babylonian religion proved extremely unpopular, and his efforts to strengthen the economy were unsuccessful. Both facts made Babylon an unpleasant residence for Nabonidus; during one extended absence from the capital city, he installed his son Belshazzar as co-regent. (Belshazzar’s position explains why he is described as the king of Babylon in the OT book of Daniel and why in Dn 5:7 he could make Daniel only “the third ruler in the kingdom.”)<\/p>\n<p>While Belshazzar was handling government affairs, the famous incident of the “writing on the wall” occurred, ominously predicting Babylon’s downfall (Dn 5). The Elamites, in fact, were already attacking the empire’s eastern flank. Rumors of Persian power in the north brought Nabonidus back to Babylon just in time for an invasion by the Persian king, Cyrus the Great. Cyrus took Babylon without a fight, putting an end both to Chaldean power and to the Neo-Babylonian Empire.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians; Astrology; Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar; Ur (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHALDEA*, CHALDEANS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient region in Mesopotamia and its inhabitants. The name comes from the Chaldean (or Kaldu) tribes that shared Babylonia in southeastern Mesopotamia with several other peoples, especially the Sumerians and Akkadians. After the old Babylonian Empire was absorbed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership took control and built a Neo-Babylonian Empire that dominated the Near East for nearly a century. The region called Chaldea is also associated with the patriarch Abraham, whose Mesopotamian home was “Ur of the Chaldeans” (Gn 11:28).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLandandPeople\">The Land and People<\/p>\n<p>Until the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Chaldea referred only to a small territory in southern Babylonia. Within 100 years, following a rapid and successful bid for power, it embraced all of Babylonia. At that time it included the territory from Baghdad on the Tigris River to the Persian Gulf and extended up the Euphrates River as far as the city of Hit. Although Chaldea is usually placed between the Tigris and Euphrates, it reached into the flatlands between the Tigris and the Zagros Mountains to the east and also included some land west of the Euphrates. The Arabian Desert formed its western boundary. Chaldea rarely exceeded 40 miles (64.4 kilometers) in width, having an area of about 8,000 square miles (12,872 square kilometers), approximately the size of New Jersey. On today’s map Chaldea falls inside Iraq, with its southwestern tip touching the small kingdom of Kuwait.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>First mention of the Chaldeans is found in the Assyrian annals of Ashurnasirpal II (885–860 <span>BC<\/span>), leading some authorities to suggest that they entered Babylonia about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>. They are usually associated (though not identified) with the Semitic Aramean tribes who were constantly pushing their way from the western deserts into Mesopotamia. They settled primarily in the southern tip of Babylonia, at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, perhaps centuries before the Assyrian annals mentioned them.<\/p>\n<p>Job 1:17 mentions three bands of Chaldeans who participated in a raid against Job’s camels and servants, probably in the vicinity of Edom or northern Arabia. Their presence in those regions does not necessarily mean they lived nearby, since armies from Babylonia (Sinar) and Elam ranged as far as Palestine centuries earlier (Gn 14:1-2).<\/p>\n<h5>Under Assyrian Rule<\/h5>\n<p>Living by the marshes and lakes of the extreme south, the Chaldeans maintained a high degree of independence, even when Assyrian dominion extended over them. It was difficult for invading armies to maneuver in the Chaldean marshes. As a result, the Chaldeans resisted paying taxes or providing any form of service to the Assyrian government. When the Assyrians sought to limit their freedom, the Chaldeans turned to guerrilla warfare and political intrigue. They were quick to disregard treaties or to switch alliances as circumstances dictated. Under Assyrian rule, whereas the native residents of Babylonian cities were generally content, the Chaldeans became the leaders of a national independence movement. For 250 years the Assyrians had to enforce their dominion against persistent Chaldean attempts to assert their autonomy and influence.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in 721 <span>BC<\/span> the Chaldean leader Marduk-apla-iddina II (known as Merodach-baladan in 2 Kgs 20:12 and Is 39:1, who sent an embassy to Hezekiah, king of Judah) entered Babylon and claimed the kingship of Babylonia, a position long appointed by the Assyrian king. Crafty and resourceful, he successfully maintained his claim for 10 years before being driven back into his own southern territory by Assyria’s Sargon II. On Sargon’s death in 705 <span>BC<\/span>, he reasserted his claim but was defeated by the new Assyrian king, Sennacherib, who destroyed Babylon as a lesson to the Chaldeans and their allies.<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib’s son and successor, Esarhaddon, pursued a policy of conciliation with the Babylonians and rebuilt their capital city, a gesture that effectively neutralized Chaldean agitation and inaugurated a period of peace that lasted over 30 years. The last unsuccessful revolt occurred under Ashurbanipal’s reign and was actually instigated by his brother, whom the Assyrian king had appointed to the Babylonian throne. The Chaldeans gladly joined the rebellion, which was crushed in 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>The Neo-Babylonian Empire<\/h5>\n<p>Two decades later, at the time of Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyrian power suddenly and dramatically slipped. Nabopolassar, a Chaldean governor, took the opportunity to drive the Assyrians out of Babylonia. He became king of Babylon in 625 <span>BC<\/span>. Allied with the Medes, the Babylonians went on to destroy the Assyrian Empire, capturing the capital cities of Asshur in 614 and Nineveh in 612. They divided the conquered lands with the Medes and annexed the Assyrian regions west and south of the Tigris, creating a new Babylonian Empire. (The first Babylonian Empire, with which Hammurabi is associated, had flourished over 1,000 years earlier.) Throughout the Near East, Chaldea and Babylonia became synonymous.<\/p>\n<p>During the long and brilliant reign of Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar (or Nebuchadrezzar) II, the empire reached its zenith. As crown prince, he won a decisive victory in 605 <span>BC<\/span> over the Egyptians at Carchemish (the battle mentioned in 2 Chr 35:20), which effectively established Babylonian supremacy in the Near East (see 2 Kgs 24:7). That same year the southern kingdom of Judah became a vassal nation to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar won the submission of King Jehoiachim, carried off the choicest articles from the temple for his own temple in Babylon, and took the outstanding leaders and youth of Judah captive (2 Kgs 24:1; 2 Chr 36:5-7; Dn 1:1-4). When Judah revolted several years later at the instigation of Egypt, the Chaldean army captured Jerusalem in 597 <span>BC<\/span>. Judah’s new king, Jehoiachin, was deposed at that time together with more of its leaders (2 Kgs 24:8-16). A second revolt in 594 <span>BC<\/span> by the Chaldean-appointed king (Zedekiah) resulted in a third invasion, the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, and the exile of most of Judah’s citizens (2 Kgs 24:20–25:12; 2 Chr 36:11-21). With the booty from that and other conquests, Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon into one of the most dazzling cities in the ancient world. His projects included the Hanging Gardens (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), the Ishtar Gate, and a 17-mile (27-kilometer) outer wall designed for defense of the city. His pride in such accomplishments eventually brought the judgment of God (Dn 4:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son Amel-marduk (Evil-merodach in 2 Kgs 25:27 and Jer 52:31, remembered there for his special kindness to the exiled king Jehoiachin). After two years he was killed in an armed rebellion led by his brother-in-law, Nergal-shar-usur (Nergal-sharezer of Jer 39:3), who attempted to establish his own dynasty. After a four-year reign Nergal-shar-usur was succeeded by his son, who lasted only a few months before being ousted by a usurper, Nabonidus.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Fall of Babylon<\/h5>\n<p>Nabonidus was the last of the Chaldean monarchs. His installation as king was supported by many Babylonian officials. They were watching their former allies, the Medes, gradually become a rival power and saw in Nabonidus a ruler strong enough to meet their threat. Strong or not, his attempts to reform Babylonian religion proved extremely unpopular, and his efforts to strengthen the economy were unsuccessful. Both facts made Babylon an unpleasant residence for Nabonidus; during one extended absence from the capital city, he installed his son Belshazzar as co-regent. (Belshazzar’s position explains why he is described as the king of Babylon in the OT book of Daniel and why in Dn 5:7 he could make Daniel only “the third ruler in the kingdom.”)<\/p>\n<p>While Belshazzar was handling government affairs, the famous incident of the “writing on the wall” occurred, ominously predicting Babylon’s downfall (Dn 5). The Elamites, in fact, were already attacking the empire’s eastern flank. Rumors of Persian power in the north brought Nabonidus back to Babylon just in time for an invasion by the Persian king, Cyrus the Great. Cyrus took Babylon without a fight, putting an end both to Chaldean power and to the Neo-Babylonian Empire.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians; Astrology; Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar; Ur (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHALDEA*, CHALDEANS Ancient region in Mesopotamia and its inhabitants. The name comes from the Chaldean (or Kaldu) tribes that shared Babylonia in southeastern Mesopotamia with several other peoples, especially the Sumerians and Akkadians. After the old Babylonian Empire was absorbed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership took control and built a Neo-Babylonian Empire that dominated the Near East for nearly a century. The region called Chaldea is also associated wit...","summary_en":"CHALDEA*, CHALDEANS Ancient region in Mesopotamia and its inhabitants. The name comes from the Chaldean (or Kaldu) tribes that shared Babylonia in southeastern Mesopotamia with several other peoples, especially the Sumerians and Akkadians. After the old Babylonian Empire was absorbed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership took control and built a Neo-Babylonian Empire that dominated the Near East for nearly a century. The region called Chaldea is also associated wit...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8585,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27164,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar*","content_ro":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR*<\/h3>\n<p>Babylonian king (605–562 <span>BC<\/span>) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 <span>BC<\/span>); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and initially submitted to Nebuchadnezzar (24:2; cf. Dn 1:1-2), but three years later rebelled. Jehoiakim died and his son Jehoiachin succeeded to the throne (2 Kgs 24:6); however, he reigned for only three months. Nebuchadnezzar came to Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (vv 10-17). He replaced Jehoiachin with his Uncle Mattaniah, whom he renamed Zedekiah (2 Kgs 24:17; 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). Nebuchadnezzar’s armies besieged the city of Jerusalem and captured Zedekiah. He was brought to Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah, where Zedekiah’s sons were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, bound, and taken captive to Babylon (25:6-7). The temple was looted and burned, the city walls were dismantled, and the city was plundered and razed (vv 9-17). The leading people of the nation were either killed or taken into captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The remnant of the people in Judah were put under the charge of Gedaliah, the appointed governor. After his treacherous murder, the Jews fled to Egypt. Both Jeremiah (Jer 43:8-13; 46:13-24) and Ezekiel (Ez 29–32) prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would invade Egypt. Josephus gives the date as the 23d year of Nebuchadnezzar (582\/581 <span>BC<\/span>), but a fragmentary historical inscription dating to the 37th year of Nebuchadnezzar (568\/567 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the defeat of Egypt occurred during the reign of Amasis.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military successes were in many respects overshadowed by his building activities in Babylon. The king voiced his pride when he declared, “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal residence and for the glory of my majesty?” (Dn 4:30, <span>rsv<\/span>). The hanging gardens were acclaimed as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. They were built on terraces in an effort to cure his Median queen of her homesickness for the mountains of her homeland.<\/p>\n<p>The events of the book of Daniel center on Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel was among the captives taken to Babylon in 605 <span>BC<\/span>. Nebuchadnezzar became aware of Daniel when the king had a dream that none of his occult experts could interpret (ch 2). The Lord gave to Daniel the interpretation of the dream; the human image that the king saw in his dream represented the various governments from the New Babylonian Empire to the reign of the Messiah.<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar set up a large human statue that was 90 feet (27.4 meters) high and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. Failure to worship the image would incur death by fire. The three compatriots of Daniel refused and were thrown into a furnace from which the Lord delivered them unhurt (ch 3).<\/p>\n<p>The king had another dream about a great tree that was cut down but later sprouted from the stump (4:4-27). Again the “wise men of Babylon” could not give the interpretation, but Daniel informed the king that the dream prophesied a humbling experience lasting seven years as a consequence of the king’s pride (vv 28-33).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Babylon, Babylonia; Daniel, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","summary_en":"NEBUCHADNEZZAR, NEBUCHADREZZAR* Babylonian king (605–562 BC) who captured and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He was the son of Nabopolassar and the foremost ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC); his name is alternately spelled Nebuchadrezzar in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (see nlt mg). Nebuchadnezzar states that he conquered all of “Hatti-country,” which is a term used for all of Palestine and Syria, including Judah. Jehoiakim had been made king of Judah by Pharaoh Neco (2 Kgs 23:34) and ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53499,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:30","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","summary_en":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81125,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:30","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","summary_en":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108751,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:30","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","summary_en":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136377,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:30","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:30","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:30<\/strong> The <em>city of Babylon<\/em> had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s <em>splendor<\/em><em>,<\/em> as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","summary_en":"4:30 The city of Babylon had magnificent walls covered with royal blue ceramic tile and gold-colored lions and dragons. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were also part of the city’s splendor, as was the dazzling Ishtar Gate. The king recognized all this as a reflection of his own glory and power, not as a gift of the Most High God.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":53500,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:32","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","summary_en":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81126,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:32","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","summary_en":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108752,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:32","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","summary_en":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136378,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:32","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:32<\/strong> The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for <em>seven periods of time<\/em> until he was purified of his pride.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","summary_en":"4:32 The king who took Israel into exile for seventy years experienced his own exile for seven periods of time until he was purified of his pride.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":4978,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birds","title_en":"Birds","content_ro":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRDS<\/h3>\n\n<p>Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p>Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult or impossible. The biblical languages were not highly specialized scientific languages. People in biblical times generally knew the difference between similar animals now categorized as separate species. For birds, however, they frequently used poetic, descriptive terms. Biblical scholars attempt to overcome the difficulties in identification by comparing the Hebrew words with similar words in related languages and by attention to the habitat, habits, and characteristics attributed to the birds in Scripture. Nevertheless, different scholars sometimes arrive at different identifications.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferencestoBirds\">Biblical References to Birds<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to birds both in literal and figurative senses. The biblical writers were keen observers of nature, their awareness of birds and bird life being reflected in many passages. They asserted that God knows all the birds (Ps 50:11) and cares for them (Mt 10:29). They saw God’s covenant with Noah after the flood, his promise never to destroy life again by flood, as extending even to the birds and animals (Gn 9:10).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law declared many birds “unclean,” mostly species that were scavengers or predators, or inhabited waste places. Centuries later the early Christians came to regard unclean species as clean by God’s decree, revealed in the apostle Peter’s vision (Acts 10:12). Other birds, like quail, sustained the Israelites in their wanderings (Ex 16:13). The Law prescribed birds as sacrifices for a firstborn child (Lk 2:24), for a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10), for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:22), and as a burnt offering and sin offering (12:8).<\/p>\n<p>Birds are easily subject to extinction, especially through human activity. God required the Israelites to practice conservation to prevent any birds from becoming extinct in the Holy Land, both for the birds’ sake and so the Israelites would have a continuous source of food. The Law allowed foraging Israelites to take eggs or the young from a bird’s nest, but they were not permitted to kill both a mother bird and her young (Dt 22:6).<\/p>\n<p>Biblical writers turned to nature frequently for illustrations of divine principles or human characteristics. Comparisons of humans to birds sometimes carry a sense of lowness, as when King Nebuchadnezzar developed claws like a bird in his madness (Dn 4:33), or when Job remarked that birds did not know the source of wisdom (Jb 28:21). In Jesus’ parable of the sower, the birds that ate the seed scattered by the wayside may represent indifference and a lack of spiritual understanding (Mt 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Scripture also contains sympathetic images of the plight of birds. A lonely man praying was likened to a lonely bird on a housetop (Ps 102:7). If someone was unjustly hunted by his enemies, he would understand a hunted bird’s plight (Lam 3:52). Birds were said to be affected by curses on evildoers as they fled from Jerusalem or from the face of the earth (Jer 9:10; Zep 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of such misfortune visited upon birds, Scripture affirms that, like other creatures, they are cared for and delighted in by God (Ps 50:11; Mt 6:26; 10:29). Both Pharaoh and Nebuchadnezzar were compared to a tree that gives shelter to the birds (Ez 31:6; Dn 4:12; cf. 2:38). Human power, however, fails eventually as when the tree representing Nebuchadnezzar was cut down, forcing the birds to flee (Dn 4:14). God’s protection, by contrast, is unfailing. Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, growing to become a shelter for birds (Mt 13:32). God provides a habitation for birds (Ps 104:12), although Jesus, the Son of Man, had nowhere to rest his head (Mt 8:20).<\/p>\n<p>Birds were considered evidence of God’s handiwork (Jb 12:7). Bird lore provided examples of good sense in learning from a mistake (Prv 1:17; 6:5) and of bad judgment in failing to avoid the snares of immorality (7:23). Birds and other creatures could be tamed, unlike the wicked human tongue (Jas 3:7). Birds flying without alighting were an image of an undeserved curse (Prv 26:2). Without trust in God, people might be forced by evil to flee like a bird to the mountains (Ps 11:1). Birdsong was said to bring joy (Sg 2:12). The return of God’s people to the Promised Land would be like birds returning (Hos 11:11). Jesus expressed his love for Jerusalem by saying that he longed to gather his people to himself as a hen gathers her brood under her wing (Mt 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, birds were occasionally regarded as ominous signs. For example, Pharaoh’s baker learned of impending death because in a dream birds ate the food from a basket on his head (Gn 40:17). Solomon warned against cursing the king, even in private, because “a little bird may tell them what you said” (Eccl 10:20). A vivid biblical image is that of scavenging, carrion-eating birds consuming the bodies of evildoers. To the Israelites, such a desecration of humanity was an image of ultimate horror (Dt 28:26; 1 Sm 17:44; Is 46:11; Jer 7:33; 12:9; Ez 29:5; 39:4; Rv 19:17, 21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IndividualSpecies\">Individual Species<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Bittern\">Bittern<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged wading bird <em>(Botaurus stellaris)<\/em> similar to the heron, but with shorter legs and a smaller, more compact body. Bitterns inhabit marshes, where it is easy for them to hide with their natural camouflage. A bittern’s mottled plumage of barred brown and black so duplicates the color and shape of swamp vegetation that at times the bird seems to disappear before the observer’s eyes. The neck is covered with long, soft feathers, making it appear disproportionately heavy. Bitterns are wary and solitary. During mating season the bittern’s larynx is modified to produce a mysterious-sounding cry. The body twists in an unusual manner in harmony with the notes. Bitterns nest alone in grassy marshes. Because they are shy, they have become symbols of places of desolation and loneliness.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the bittern is actually mentioned in the Bible. The <span>kjv<\/span> has “bittern” in three places (Is 14:23; 34:11; Zep 2:14). Many biblical scholars believe the Hebrew word in those verses refers not to the bittern but to the hedgehog (Is 14:23; Zep 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>) or porcupine (Is 34:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Hebrew word is similar to an Arabic word meaning “porcupine.” Other scholars point out that the references suggest a bird rather than a mammal, especially Zephaniah 2:14, which speaks of the creature making its “lodge in her capitals” (i.e., above Nineveh’s doorposts). Bitterns are particularly abundant in the swamps of the Tigris River (near Nineveh). The bittern’s characteristics may fit the references in the three passages better than do the hedgehog’s.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hedgehog; Animals (Porcupine).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Buzzard\">Buzzard<\/p>\n<p>Hawklike soaring bird <em>(Buteo vulgaris<\/em> or <em>Buteo ferox).<\/em> It resembles the kite, though its tail is straight and not cleft. It is mentioned in the list of unclean birds (Dt 14:13). But other translations render the word as “glede” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “kite” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>). The parallel list in Leviticus 11, however, substitutes “kite” (<span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>) or “vulture” (<span>kjv<\/span>) for “buzzard.” Thus, it is difficult to determine whether the buzzard is actually mentioned in the Bible, even though it is a common resident of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Like other great soaring birds, the buzzard is noted for its sharp eyesight, and may be the bird mentioned for that quality in Job 28:7 (variously translated “falcon,” “eagle,” or “vulture”). It will trail its prey for hours, and has a remarkable ability to see a carcass on which it descends to feed. Somewhat larger than the common buzzard is the long-legged buzzard, found in Israel, western Asia, and Syria.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kestrel; Kite; Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cormorant\">Cormorant<\/p>\n<p>Large, black gooselike bird <em>(Phalacrocorax carbo),<\/em> repeatedly depicted in art from Egypt and the Holy Land. Its length varies from 19 to 40 inches (48.3 to 101.6 centimeters). Its feet have webs between all four toes. The feet, attached far back on the body, serve as propellers when the cormorant dives to catch its meal of fish, crustacea, or amphibia. The long bill is curved at the tip, and under the bill is a sac in which the cormorant keeps the captured fish.<\/p>\n<p>Cormorants live in large companies, making nests of sticks and other vegetation that they carry to trees or to rocky shelves near coasts. Up to four eggs are incubated, and the young are fed by both parents.<\/p>\n<p>The cormorant frequents swamps around the Sea of Galilee, Lake Huleh (the waters of Merom), and the Mediterranean coast. Its Hebrew name originally denoted the “hurling down” of the bird at its prey. Cormorants dive into deep water and sometimes seem to zoom beneath the surface in their hunt for fish. The cormorant’s greed is proverbial. It was ceremonially unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Pelican (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Crane\">Crane<\/p>\n<p>Tall wading birds <em>(Grus grus)<\/em> resembling storks and herons but with shorter talons. The plumage has a silvery gloss and the tail feathers are wavy. Large flocks of cranes flying in wedge-shaped formations pass over the Holy Land during the daylight hours each fall on their way to Africa from the northern countries of Europe and again in the spring when they return north to breed. Migratory flocks may number as many as 2,000 birds. Jeremiah 8:7 refers to the crane’s migratory habits.<\/p>\n<p>The usual call of the crane is best described as a bellow, but during migratory flight they emit a chattering sound that may be referred to in Isaiah 38:14. Cranes have remarkably powerful voices, their calls seeming to carry for miles. Migrating flocks usually have a flock leader who does the calling.<\/p>\n<p>A crane’s height may reach 40 to 60 inches (101.6 to 152.4 centimeters). Except for the ostrich, the crane is the tallest bird ever to inhabit the Holy Land. A crane’s wingspread may exceed 90 inches (228.6 centimeters). The overall color is steel gray; the head and neck are black with a longitudinal white stripe. The crane feeds on land rather than in shallow water. It feeds primarily on grass and grain yet may devour insects, snakes, small alligators, frogs, and worms, using its long, powerful bill as a sharp hammer for killing such creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The crane usually nests in solitary places, often in shallow water or nearby. Its nest is a mass of vegetation, holding two or three eggs that are light-colored with darker spots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Cuckoo\">Cuckoo<\/p>\n<p>Small, drab brown bird known for its parasitic habits. The term the <span>kjv<\/span> used in Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15 may refer either to the common cuckoo <em>(Cuculus canorus)<\/em> or to the great spotted cuckoo <em>(Clamator glandarius).<\/em> The bird acts as a brood parasite, laying its eggs in the nest of another species after pushing out one of the eggs of the host species. The young cuckoo hatches before the young of the host species and evicts the other young. The foster parents raise it as their own.<\/p>\n<p>The cuckoo, an insect eater, is considered ritually unclean in Scripture, which might imply that it is a predator or carrion-eater. For that reason some believe the Hebrew word actually refers to the seagull or sea mew rather than the cuckoo. Gulls, terns, and petrels are all common on the seashore and lakes of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Other scholars believe that the Hebrew word refers not to the cuckoo but to one of the owls, possibly the long-eared owl.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Seagull (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Eagle\">Eagle<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey, genus <em>Aquila.<\/em> Vultures were often confused with eagles, making identification of the biblical birds difficult. Eagles’ heads are not bald as are the heads of vultures, but from a distance they appear similar. It is possible that the Hebrew word translated “eagle” (which literally means “to tear with the beak”) may have referred to all large birds of prey, eagles and vultures alike. A number of references to the eagle in Scripture are actually references to the griffon vulture (e.g., Hos 8:1; perhaps Mt 24:28). In certain passages, however, the true eagle may be meant.<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Land has several varieties of eagle, including the imperial eagle <em>(Aquila heliaca)<\/em> and the less common golden eagle <em>(Aquila chrysaetos).<\/em> These birds are powerfully built with strong wings; their movements reveal suppleness and strength. A distinctive hooked beak, which enhances the eagle’s dignified and somewhat ferocious appearance, provides it with an effective instrument for tearing and killing prey. Short, powerful legs and prehensile claws enable an eagle to apply an almost unbreakable grip on a struggling victim. The strong talons have sharp points and edges. The eagle hunts by day.<\/p>\n<p>For Jeremiah and other prophets, the eagle was the epitome of swiftness. The golden eagle, which can fly three or four miles (5–7 kilometers) in ten minutes, may have evoked the comparisons in 2 Samuel 1:23;Jeremiah 4:13; 49:22; Lamentations 4:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>), and Habakkuk 1:8. Moses used a similar comparison to emphasize the sudden striking power of a hostile enemy (Dt 28:49). The author of Proverbs, observing the high altitude to which the eagle soars, applied that image to the human situation (Prv 23:4-5; cf. Rv 12:14).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle’s strength and invincibility were mentioned often with reference to powerful nations attacking Israel. The prophet Ezekiel described Nebuchadnezzar as an eagle (Ez 17:3). Both the Babylonians and Assyrians frequently depicted the eagle in their art, especially as a deity with a man’s body and an eagle’s head. Nebuchadnezzar even had an experience of temporary insanity in which “his hair grew as long as eagles’ feathers, and his nails were like birds’ claws” (Dn 4:33, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eagle builds its nest on inaccessible mountain peaks or at the top of the tallest trees, a fact noted by Jeremiah (Jer 49:16; cf. Jb 39:27-28; Ob 1:4). The brood consists of two or occasionally three eggs. Only the female sits on the nest, but the young eaglets are fed by both parents. Eagles are devoted to their offspring and train them with great care in the art of flying. Some commentators interpret Exodus 19:4 and Deuteronomy 32:11 as evidence of the eagle’s practice of catching its young on its wings. There is virtually no evidence from observation, however, that any eagle can perform such a feat. In some versions the wording avoids a direct statement that eagles bear their young on their wings.<\/p>\n<p>Some eagles in captivity have lived to an age of over 100 years. This remarkable longevity caused the psalmist to speak of the eagle whose youth is renewed (Ps 103:5). Confronted by its impressive qualities, biblical authors observed the eagle with awe and wonder (Jb 39:27-30; Prv 30:18-19). Those awesome qualities also contributed to several prophetic visions, including Ezekiel’s vision of a creature with an eagle’s face (Ez 1:10) and the apostle John’s vision of a holy beast like a flying eagle (Rv 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"FowlDomestic\">Fowl, Domestic<\/p>\n<p>Domesticated poultry <em>(Gallus gallus domesticus),<\/em> probably derived from the red jungle fowl of India. They seem to have been known already in OT times (Prv 30:31). A seal of Jaazaniah (see 2 Kgs 25:23), dating from about 600 <span>BC<\/span>, bears the image of a fighting cock. A reference to fowls or poultry for Nehemiah’s table, however, may be to wild game rather than domestic fowl (Neh 5:18).<\/p>\n<p>Poultry symbolized fertility, and the Jews carried a cock and hen in front of bridal couples at weddings. The motherly concern of hens gathering their broods was familiar to Jesus’ hearers (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34).<\/p>\n<p>Since roosters habitually crow an hour or two before dawn, the third watch of the night, from midnight to 3:00 <span>am<\/span>, was known as the cockcrow. According to the Talmud (a commentary on Jewish law), keeping chickens was prohibited in Jerusalem in NT times to prevent the insects and larvae that breed in chicken droppings from contaminating sacrificial flesh. For that reason the cock that Peter heard (Mt 26:34, 74; Lk 22:34, 60-61) probably belonged to Romans living there or to Jews who did not follow Jewish regulations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GoatsuckerorNightHawk\">Goatsucker or Night Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Migratory bird, dark in color and short-legged, similar to the American whippoorwill. The goatsucker (genus <em>Caprimulgus<\/em>) resembles an owl with a flat head, large eyes, soft plumage, and a noiseless flight. It hunts insects at night, catches them on the wing, and during the day rests on branches. Goatsuckers were so named because they were thought by the ancients to milk goats. According to Leviticus 11:16 and Deuteronomy 14:15, they were ritually unclean. Although some scholars believe that an owl is intended, there seems to be good reason to accept the “night hawk” translation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Goose\">Goose<\/p>\n<p>Long-necked, web-footed water birds with waterproof feathers (genus <em>Anser<\/em>). Domestic geese were known to the Greeks of Homer’s day, since they are mentioned in the <em>Odyssey.<\/em> They were domesticated in Egypt perhaps as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2500 <span>BC<\/span>) and certainly by the time of the New Kingdom (c. 1500– 1100 <span>BC<\/span>). They were used for food and sacrifice. The breeding of geese was widespread in Canaan in biblical times; ivory carvings of the 13th or 12th century <span>BC<\/span> showing geese have been found in excavations at Megiddo in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Many species of geese spend most of their lives on land even though they are waterfowl; some even build their nests in trees. Wild geese tend to inhabit flatlands and prairies rather than mountainous terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Geese may have graced the table of King Solomon. In 1 Kings 4:23 they are referred to as “fatted fowl,” a term that may also refer to ducks, swans, guineas, pigeons, or other domestic edible birds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hawk\">Hawk<\/p>\n<p>Small birds of prey found in the Holy Land. Most references are probably to the sparrow hawk <em>(Accipter nisus).<\/em> This bird is slightly larger than the kestrel, has a grayish-brown back and a white belly with black and brown bars. It has short feathers, long, curved talons, and broad wings, rounded at the outer ends, which enable it to soar on updrafts. The long tail, acting as a rudder, helps the bird change its course swiftly in flight. It is hence very maneuverable in the air when chasing warblers or other small birds. It does not seize its prey on the ground, as does the kestrel, but hunts and attacks small birds in flight. Hawks hunt in the daytime, unlike owls that are adapted for nighttime hunting. With their eyes located on the side of the head, hawks are very keen-sighted. They usually nest in tall trees and their nests are often occupied by the same pair year after year.<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians embalmed sparrow hawks and regarded all hawks highly. The god Horus was depicted with the head of a hawk hawk was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). It was not a permanent resident of Israel but stopped off as it migrated from north to south. Its southward migration is mentioned in Job 39:26. A reference in Isaiah 34:11 to “hawk” (“cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>) is uncertain. <em>See<\/em> Kestrel or Falcon; Kite (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Heron\">Heron<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (genus <em>Ardea<\/em>) with a long, thin neck and long legs. It has a characteristic comblike growth on the inner side of the third toe.<\/p>\n<p>Herons are generally white, blue, green, or gray. They nest together in rookeries, and both parents bring in food for the young. Herons feed on fish, small reptiles, and insects, gulping them down in one swallow. Adults and young migrate in the late fall to warm southern climates. The white heron attains a length of more than 3 feet (.9 meter), whereas the dwarf heron is only about 22 inches (55.9 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>At least seven varieties of heron are reported in the Holy Land. The white ibis, or buff-backed heron (<em>Buphus russatus<\/em>), was probably the most common species. The purple heron <em>(Ardea purpureus)<\/em> is a summer breeder found in all parts of the Holy Land where there is standing water.<\/p>\n<p>The blue-gray heron (<em>Ardea cinerea<\/em>) winters in southern Europe and North Africa, migrating to northern Europe in the early spring. In Israel it builds its winter nest near water, in swamps and along riverbanks, where it feeds on fish and frogs. It will stand patiently in the water for hours, and then suddenly its long, pointed beak darts down with lightning speed to catch its prey. Often the blue-gray heron builds its nest in a tall tree to which it may return year after year.<\/p>\n<p>According to Leviticus 11:19 and Deuteronomy 14:18, the heron was ceremonially unclean to the Israelites. Some scholars believe those references are to the cormorant, but most scholars think they refer to one of the herons.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cormorant (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Hoopoe\">Hoopoe<\/p>\n<p>One of the Holy Land’s most beautiful birds (<em>Upupa epops<\/em>). It has vividly colored plumage, a lovely crown-shaped crest that becomes erect when the bird is alarmed, and a long, slender curved bill. The pinkish-brown hoopoe is about 11 inches (27.9 centimeters) long, with black and white bands on its back, tail, and wings. Hoopoes are basically desert-dwelling birds.<\/p>\n<p>The name “hoopoe” is derived from the sound of the bird’s call. To emit the sound, the neck feathers are puffed up and the head snapped in the air. When on the ground, the bird hammers its beak into the earth.<\/p>\n<p>The hoopoe arrives in the Holy Land in February, breeds in the summer, and leaves in September. It was held in religious reverence by the Egyptians. It was listed as ritually unclean (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18), probably because it searches for grubs and small insects in such unsanitary places as dunghills.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ibis\">Ibis<\/p>\n<p>Wading bird (<em>Threskiornis aethiopica<\/em>) presently unknown in the Holy Land but possibly known there in biblical times. It was well known in ancient Egypt, where it was sacred to the god Thoth. Today it has practically vanished with the disappearance of swamps along the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the ibis is meant in Leviticus 11:17, where it is classified as ceremonially unclean. The same Hebrew word in Deuteronomy 14:16 and Isaiah 34:11 is translated “great owl,” a translation preferred by most scholars.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl, Great (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KestrelorFalcon\">Kestrel or Falcon<\/p>\n<p>Small hawk (<em>Falco tinnunculus<\/em>) about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long with brown, black, and yellow feathers on its breast. It was abundant in the Holy Land in villages and in the countryside, nesting on rooftops and among rocks. Like most hawks, the kestrel is able to hover and float in midair and then swoop down on its prey, seizing it with sharp, hooklike talons. It feeds largely on mice, small reptiles, and insects.<\/p>\n<p>Embalmed kestrels have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. The Egyptians also embalmed the hunting kestrel <em>(Falco cherug),<\/em> which can be tamed and trained to hunt rabbits and other small game. Falconry (hunting with hawks of various species) was well known among the ancients and is still practiced today. That the Assyrians were familiar with falconry is seen in the records of Ashurbanipal. Because the kestrel is a predator, it was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:14). Some translations render the word as “kite” (Lv 11:14, <span>kjv<\/span>; Dt 14:13, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>), an illustration of the difficulty of identifying biblical birds precisely.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kite or Glede (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"KiteorGlede\">Kite or Glede<\/p>\n<p>Large bird of prey <em>(Milvus milvus).<\/em> The average length of the kite is about 19 inches (48.3 centimeters). The upper part is generally dark, but the belly is white. Kites nest high in trees and build nests of vegetation, including sticks. They rarely have more than two or three young, which they feed on snakes, grasshoppers, and so on. Sometimes kites are called snake hawks.<\/p>\n<p>The kite is a migratory bird that stays in Israel during the summer, especially in the mountains of southern Judea, in the trackless wastes west of the Dead Sea, and in the wilderness of Beersheba.<\/p>\n<p>The red kite or glede is a medium-sized bird of prey. The edges of the upper part of the bill overlap with the lower one, forming sharp scissors. The tail is forked or cleft like that of a fish. Its loud cry often includes sharp whistling notes. Other Holy Land species include the black kite <em>(Milvus migrans)<\/em> and the black-winged kite <em>(Elanus caeruleus).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The kite is listed among the unclean birds in Mosaic law (Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13), but the precise identification of the birds mentioned there is disputed by some scholars and translators.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Buzzard; Kestrel or Falcon (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Lammergeier\">Lammergeier<\/p>\n<p>Largest of the vultures and less common than the other members of the family. It is grayish brown with white streaks and has a black tuft of stiff hairs in the facial area that gives it the name “bearded vulture.” Another name for it is “lamb vulture.”<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier <em>(Gypaetus barbatus)<\/em> has a unique way of killing its prey; since its beak is not particularly powerful it carries its victim high in the air and then drops it on rocks.<\/p>\n<p>The lammergeier is especially partial to tortoises and to marrow bone. After jackals and smaller vultures have reduced a carcass to bone, the lammergeier crushes the bones to obtain the marrow, or swallows the pieces intact. Hence it is also known as the ossifrage, from a Latin word meaning “bone crusher.” The lammergeier was unclean in Mosaic law (Lv 11:13; Dt 14:13; both translated “vulture” in <span>nlt<\/span> and “ossifrage” in <span>kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Ostrich\">Ostrich<\/p>\n<p>Two-toed, swift-running, flightless bird (<em>Struthio camelus<\/em>) that lives in deserts or in areas covered with stunted bushes.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times ostriches ranged as far north as Syria and were found over the entire wasteland of the Negev Desert, but they have since become extinct there. Its Hebrew name means “daughter of the desert.” It is the largest of all living birds, attaining a height of about 10 feet (3 meters) and a weight of 175 pounds (79.5 kilograms), though some males may weigh as much as 300 pounds (136.4 kilograms). The female is considerably smaller. Powerful thighs and long legs give the ostrich great speed, reported to be as high as 40 <span>mph<\/span> (64 <span>kph<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The ostrich is omnivorous. It eats grass, fruits, small mammals, birds, snakes, and lizards, as well as large pebbles that assist in the breakdown of food in its gizzard. The ostrich is hunted, but its eggs are generally more sought after than the bird itself. The empty shells are traded throughout the Mediterranean area for use as utensils, or when broken up as raw material for beads. The eggs—as many as 25 in one clutch—are laid in a shallow nest of sand, with some left uncovered. They may appear to be neglected by day, but only because they are ordinarily incubated at night. The cock does most of the incubating; the female participates only during cold days. The strong, thick eggshell protects the embryo from the heat of the desert.<\/p>\n<p>Occasionally the ostrich is used for riding or even for pulling small carts. Ostrich feathers are in great demand. Ostrich plumes graced ancient royal courts as fans. An ivory-handled fan of Pharaoh Tutankhamen (King Tut) had lovely ostrich plumes. The plumes are white in the male and brownish gray in the female. The reputation of the ostrich for stupidity comes from its behavior when hunted and cornered; it fails to take evasive action even when doing so would save it. In open country, however, it is very wary and runs at great speed to escape. In contrast to the partridge, an ostrich will run away from its eggs and chicks when pursued.<\/p>\n<p>Most biblical references to ostriches emphasize their negative characteristics. They were regarded as unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15). Several references associate ostriches with images of wilderness and desolation (Jb 30:29; Is 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Jer 50:39). Their night cry, which has been compared to an ox’s lowing in pain, is referred to in Micah 1:8. Biblical writers also noted the apparent indifference of the ostrich to its brood (Jb 39:13-18; Lam 4:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Owl\">Owl<\/p>\n<p>Nocturnal birds (order Strigiformes) with large heads and large, forward-looking eyes. Their wing and tail feathers are soft as velvet, helping to make their flight noiseless. The owl’s body is small and slender, about the size of a pigeon, but it appears bulky because of the thick covering of feathers. Owls have been considered bearers of misfortune and omens of disaster. In the Near East, owls now live in temple ruins and pyramids in Egypt, and in rock-hewn graves, ruins, and caves on both sides of the Jordan River in Israel. They seldom come near inhabited dwellings.<\/p>\n<p>Owls have excellent night vision, which they use to capture rodents or other animals. Although unusually large, the owl’s eyes are almost useless in the daylight because the light dazzles them. The owl is able to swallow its prey whole because of its elastic esophagus. Indigestible hair and bones are regurgitated as pellets. The bill is short but sharply hooked.<\/p>\n<p>Owls may lay up to ten eggs. The young are cared for on the nest by both parents. Both adults and young tend to remain in the area in which they were hatched. Eight species of owls are found in the Holy Land, of which five are plentiful. It is difficult, however, to identify a particular species with any of the four Hebrew words translated “owl” in Scripture. A fifth word translated “owl” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is more appropriately identified with the ostrich (<span>rsv<\/span>). Owls appear in the lists of unclean birds (Lv 11:17; Dt 14:16), and although translations differ, they concur that all species of owls, being predators, are unclean.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ostrich (above); Owl, Barn or White; Owl, Great; Owl, Little; Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlBarnorWhite\">Owl, Barn or White<\/p>\n<p>Large owl <em>(Tyto alloa)<\/em> with a distinct heart-shaped face. It may get its Hebrew name from a snoring sound it makes when breathing in the nest. In flight it emits a frightening screech, and thus is sometimes referred to as the screech owl. Its somewhat sinister features—a large head and wide pop eyes—have led some people to consider it demonic, but they have also inspired another name, the monkey-faced owl. It is a useful bird, however, devouring rodents that raid fields and damage stored grain. Like other owls, it sleeps during the day and hunts at night with a well-developed sense of hearing and sight. Its color is light brownish yellow with a white mask around the eyes and cheeks. The whole leg is covered with feathers that protect it against the bites of struggling victims in its talons.<\/p>\n<p>Some modern translations mention the barn or white owl by name (Lv 11:17, <span>njb<\/span>; 11:18, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>njb<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above), Owl, Scops (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlGreat\">Owl, Great<\/p>\n<p>Large owl, standing nearly two feet (60.9 centimeters) tall <em>(Asio otus).<\/em> The color is mouse gray with gray-brown spots and black stripes. As one of its names indicates, it has tufted “ears” and is sometimes called the great horned owl. It feeds on rodents, such as rats and mice. It winters in Israel among ruins and in groves.<\/p>\n<p>The great owl may be the owl mentioned in the Bible among the birds of desolation that will inhabit devastated Edom (Is 34:11, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). It is also mentioned by name in some translations of the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlLittle\">Owl, Little<\/p>\n<p>Smallest of all nocturnal birds of prey. Chiefly insectivorous, the little owl <em>(Athene noctua glaux)<\/em> also feeds at times on tiny birds. It is the most common owl in the Holy Land, dwelling among ruins, tombstones, rocks, and thickets (perhaps the owl of Ps 102:6). Its voice sounds like that of a dying person. On occasion it may be observed perched on a rock with its large eyes gazing off into the distance, a pose that the ancients considered a sign of wisdom. The Greeks associated the little owl with the goddess Athena. It is mentioned by name in several translations (Lv 11:17, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>; Dt 14:16, <span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OwlScops\">Owl, Scops<\/p>\n<p>Small owl <em>(Otus scops)<\/em> distinguished by two horn-shaped crests of hairlike feathers on its head. It perches in an inclined posture and hops and dances like a goat. During the hatching period, the male’s hooting sounds like a moan. The scops owl feeds on insects, rodents, and birds. During invasions of mice or locusts, these owls have appeared in large flocks and helped to destroy the pests. They have been known to attack humans who intrude on their nests. They are well-known inhabitants of Eurasia and Africa.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars suggest that the scops is the true screech owl, because of its whistling calls that resound through the night. The screech owl is mentioned only once in Scripture (Is 34:14, <span>kjv<\/span>), but that translation is the subject of scholarly debate. Following traditional Jewish mythology, some translations use the Hebrew word <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">lilith<\/span><em>)<\/em> as a proper name. In Jewish tradition Lilith was a witch-demon who, before Eve’s creation, was Adam’s wife. She became the mother of demons and was thought to attack children during the night; thus the name “Lilith” is translated “night hag” (<span>rsv<\/span>) or “night monster” (<span>nasb<\/span>). Most scholars favoring the mythical interpretation, however, suggest that Isaiah was using a popular legend to evoke a sense of desolation and did not himself believe in the existence of Lilith. There is little support for “screech owl” as an appropriate translation of the name.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Owl; Owl, Barn or White (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Partridge\">Partridge<\/p>\n<p>Most common game bird in the Holy Land. The partridge resembles a chicken in its basic anatomy but has a less chunky body and a longer tail. Two species of partridge inhabit the Holy Land: the sand partridge <em>(Ammoperdix heyi),<\/em> found near the Dead Sea, in the Jordan River valley, and in the Sinai Desert; and the chukar partridge <em>(Alectoris graeca).<\/em> The sand partridge is a medium-sized bird with yellow feet. The male has sandy-buff plumage, upper tail feathers penciled and barred with brown, and a chestnut and white undersurface. The female is a grayish buff. The chukar partridge resembles the common French partridge of Europe, having a body about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long. It is covered with beautiful and radiantly colored feathers.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical reference (1 Sm 26:20; probably the sand partridge because of the geographical context) alludes to the common method of catching it by chasing. It was also hunted with snares (cf. Ps 91:3) or by hunters hiding in a blind. The fast-running partridge soon becomes exhausted, which enables hunters to run it to the ground and kill it. Nevertheless, by running and jumping, it can ascend very steep cliffs. The bird finds refuge among bushes into which its brownish-green feathers blend protectively. If it were not such a prolific breeder, it would probably have become extinct by being hunted for food.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical description of the partridge gathering a brood she did not hatch (Jer 17:11) seems to be based on the fact that the hen lays at least two clutches of eggs, one for herself and one for the cock to incubate.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Peacock\">Peacock<\/p>\n<p>Member of the quail, partridge, and pheasant family, the peacock <em>(Pavo cristatus)<\/em> is actually the male peafowl. Its mate is properly known as the peahen. The male attracts attention because of a stately, luxurious appearance enhanced by magnificent feathers. The breast is a brilliant metallic blue, and each tail feather has a brilliant eye near the tip. When lowered, the unusually long tail feathers form a train behind the peacock on the ground, giving it an overall length of up to six feet (1.8 meters). The train can also be raised to form a huge fan adorned with the multicolored eyes. During courtship the feathers are raised and vibrated to make a distinct rustling noise. The rather drab peahen lacks the long train.<\/p>\n<p>Because it is not native to the Holy Land, the peacocks referred to in 1 Kings 10:22 and 2 Chronicles 9:21 are thought by some scholars to be Old World monkeys or baboons brought from east Africa, or guinea hens from the upper Nile River region. There is evidence, however, that the Phoenicians introduced peacocks to the Egyptian pharaoh, perhaps as early as the time of King Solomon. It is possible that Solomon’s trade expeditions ranged as far as India, where the peacock is native. The peacock was also well known to the Greeks and Romans. Alexander the Great prized its beauty and forbade his soldiers to kill the bird.<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church the peacock became a symbol of the immortality promised in the resurrection of Christ. In addition, the eyes of its tail came to represent the all-seeing eye of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Pelican\">Pelican<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all aquatic birds, considerably larger even than the swan. The pelican <em>(Pelecanus onocrotalus)<\/em> is generally about 50 inches (127 centimeters) long with a 16-inch (40.6-centimeters) beak, the upper part of which is hooked downward at the end, facilitating fish catching. The lower part of the bill supports a yellow pouch extending down the throat. The pouch may hold up to three gallons (11.4 liters) of food (small fish) and water. The pelican’s webbed feet are peculiar in having webs between all four toes. Pelicans are expert swimmers as well as efficient fliers. The pelican’s massive body, long neck, and comparatively small head give it proportions that make rising from the water difficult. To take off, a pelican must first flap awkwardly along the surface, pounding at the water with its legs.<\/p>\n<p>Pelicans fly and nest in groups. Both sexes care for the young that hatch from the one to four eggs. Whereas most birds feed their young by placing food into their mouths, the pelican reverses the process; the young pelican sticks its head and most of its body into its mother’s throat and plucks partially digested food from the mother’s crop. The deep penetration of the young’s beak into the mother’s gullet led ancients to believe that the young were feeding on the blood of the mother’s breast, thus giving rise to wide usage of the pelican as a symbol of Christ’s atonement, and of charity in general.<\/p>\n<p>The roseate pelican is white, at times with a faint rose tinge, and has black feathers growing from the wing joint farthest from the body. The legs, pouch, and skin around the eyes are yellow; the hook of the beak is red. This species may grow up to six feet (1.8 meters) long with a wingspread of up to eight feet (2.4 meters). During the breeding season, the coloration of the exposed areas of the roseate pelican’s legs and face changes from gray to bright orange or red. At the same time the white feathers acquire a beautiful pink tint originating from an oil-gland secretion. The oil is spread throughout the plumage by the bird as it preens.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars question whether “pelican” is an appropriate translation of the Hebrew in several verses, believing rather that the word refers to one of the owls, hawks, or vultures. Most translations include the pelican in the lists of ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17). Opinion on the other references is more sharply divided. Some scholars maintain that the desert context of the verses eliminates the possibility of a water bird like the pelican (cf. Ps 102:6, “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Is 34:11, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “hawk,” <span>rsv<\/span>; Zep 2:14, “cormorant,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>). On the other hand, the roseate pelican frequents the rivers, lakes, and marshes of the Holy Land. After flying out to sea as far as 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) to swoop down on fish near the surface, the pelican often returns inland to a deserted place to digest its enormous meal. Thus, the pelican may be the lonely wilderness bird of those passages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PigeonorDove\">Pigeon or Dove<\/p>\n<p>Species of the pigeon family (Columbidae). In common usage the names “pigeon” and “dove” are virtually interchangeable. The common domestic pigeon familiar to city dwellers the world over, for example, is actually a descendant of the wild rock dove. Both names are used in English translations of the Bible to translate the same Hebrew word. A second Hebrew word is usually translated “turtledove.” Nevertheless, it seems clear that the ancient Hebrews recognized differences among dove species.<\/p>\n<p>At least six species of pigeon or dove reside in modern Israel: the rock, ring, and stock doves (genus <em>Columba<\/em>), and the turtle, collared, and palm doves (genus <em>Streptopelia<\/em>). Of the six, the rock dove <em>(Columba livia)<\/em> and the turtledove <em>(Streptopelia turtur)<\/em> seem to be the two most often referred to in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Pigeons vary in size from 6 to over 12 inches (15 to 30 centimeters). The most colorful Israeli species is the rock dove, which can be a beautiful silvery gray with grayish-green iridescent plumage on the wings (noted by David, Ps 68:13). The smaller doves <em>(Streptopelia)<\/em> are less colorful, mostly gray or buff with a blackish or checkered half collar on the back of the neck. Pigeons have short necks and small heads, plump bodies, and short wings controlled by strong muscles that enable them to fly considerable distances. The smaller doves have longer tails.<\/p>\n<p>At present, the wild rock dove is found primarily in the area around the Sea of Galilee and farther to the south in the many ravines leading down to the Dead Sea. Wild rock doves prefer to build their nests on rocks and cliff faces, a fact precisely described in Scripture (Sg 2:14; Jer 48:28). All Israeli doves build fragile nests of scraps of vegetation. Eggs are hatched twice a year. Doves seldom lay more than two eggs. The young are cared for in the nest by both parents, who rove over the fields eating seeds and weeds. The adult’s crop contains digested food in a milky condition, called pigeon’s milk, which can be regurgitated and fed to the young.<\/p>\n<p>During courtship there is a great deal of rivalry among the male doves. The turtledove’s courtship dance is an awesome aerial display. The attention to courtship, the joint care of young, and the solicitude of the parents for each other, noted from earliest times, have made the dove one of the most popular symbols of love and peace (Sg 1:15; 2:14; 4:1; 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major distinction between pigeons (ring doves) and turtledoves seems to have been recognized by ancient writers. Pigeons are year-round residents and easily tamed, whereas turtledoves are migratory. Turtledoves were confined in cages singly or in pairs as pets or for sacrifices. Pigeons were probably the first birds to be domesticated, perhaps as early as Noah’s time (Gn 8:8-12). They were depicted on the earliest Egyptian monuments, and their edibility was mentioned in early Egyptian texts. Before long, domestic pigeons were regarded as evidence of a household’s prosperity. In the more prosperous households they nested in dovecotes of molded pottery clay fashioned in latticelike structures (hence the “windows” of Is 60:8).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there were many dovecotes in the parks around Herod the Great’s palace in Jerusalem. The dove’s popularity was due not only to its docility but also to its desirability as food and as an acceptable and relatively inexpensive sacrifice. The turtledove may have been regarded more highly as a sacrifice because of its wildness and consequent lesser availability. The two biblical references to turtledoves not in a sacrificial context refer to their migratory habits and to their arrival in Israel in the spring (Sg 2:12; Jer 8:7; cf. Hos 11:11).<\/p>\n<p>Most of the references to doves and pigeons in the Bible are in statements about sacrificial procedures (Gn 15:7-10; Lv 1:14; 5:7; 12:6; Nm 6:10; Lk 2:24). Other references, however, include a range of observations and symbolic usages of the dove. Its throaty moaning was often observed (Is 38:14; 59:11; Ez 7:16; Na 2:7). Its power of flight was well known (Ps 55:6), as were its beauty (Sg 1:15; 4:1; 5:12), its gentleness and loyalty to its mate (Sg 2:14; 5:2; 6:9), its affection (Ps 74:19), and its innocence (Mt 10:16). The one negative reference to doves is in Hosea 7:11, where they are said to be senseless and foolish, perhaps in reference to their overly trusting nature.<\/p>\n<p>Of NT references, perhaps the most significant is the description of the Holy Spirit at Christ’s baptism as a descending dove (Mt 3:16). The dove’s loving nature made it natural for early Christians to connect the dove image with the concept of the Comforter. Since then the dove has remained the most popular symbol of the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Quail\">Quail<\/p>\n<p>Short, stocky birds with bills and feet similar to those of chickens; hence they are adapted to eating seeds or insects. Quail <em>(Coturnix coturnix)<\/em> are the smallest of the subfamily of poultry that also includes pheasants and partridges. Quail (or “quails,” another plural form) are about ten inches (25.4 centimeters) long and have small, rounded wings. They burst from their hiding places in the grass or bushes with a whirring sound. The belly of the quail is white. Up to 18 eggs are laid, and if the mother dies, the male has been known to assume the care of the young. Quail of the Mediterranean region winter in the Sudan and migrate northward in vast flocks in the spring. Quail cannot maintain a long sustained flight but make use of wind currents to keep them aloft.<\/p>\n<p>Enormous flocks of quail twice served as food for the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai, when the birds were driven down in the desert miraculously by winds (Ex 16:13; Nm 11:31-32; Ps 105:40). The second time they were probably flying along the Gulf of Aqaba and were blown off course by the east wind (Nm 11:31; Ps 78:26-28). Their inability to sustain long flight may account for their low flying level—two cubits, or about 40 inches (101.6 centimeters). When exhausted, they were easily caught by hand (Nm 11:31-32). Quail were considered clean and the most delicate eating of all game birds, and they were preserved by drying in the sun.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Raven\">Raven<\/p>\n<p>Member of the crow family (Corvidae). The Hebrew word for “raven” means “black one.” The raven (<em>Corvus corax<\/em>) weighs about three pounds (1.36 kilograms) and varies from 22 to 26 inches (56 to 66 centimeters) in length. Its tail is broader in the middle than at either end. Eight species are found in Israel: three ravens, two jackdaws, one crow, one rook, and one chough. The crow, about 20 inches (50.8 centimeters) long, is smaller than a raven, and its tail is uniform in width. The raven’s most conspicuous feature is its glossy black iridescent plumage.<\/p>\n<p>Ravens and crows have survived in spite of the dislike many humans have for them. Excellent fliers, they migrate by day and congregate in great flocks of up to several hundred thousand. During the nesting season, they make nests of sticks in which two to seven eggs are laid. Ravens mate for life. Equipped with strong wings, a strong bill, and strong feet, ravens can live in isolated places from which they range widely for food. That it did not return to the ark was a good sign to Noah, indicating that the raven could find food and possibly a place to rest on dry mountaintops (Gn 8:7).<\/p>\n<p>The raven, essentially a scavenger, was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:15; Dt 14:14). Yet ravens fed Elijah at God’s command (1 Kgs 17:4-6). Job was told that God gave the raven its food (Jb 38:41), as the psalmist and Jesus repeated (Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). The raven’s glistening black plumage inspired the bride’s comparison of her beloved’s hair (Sg 5:11). They prefer desolate, uninhabited areas as their home territory (Is 34:11). Ravens are crafty, active birds. Some are capable of speaking, solving puzzles, and performing feats of memory. Bold and curious, they sometimes use their talents for theft.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Seagull\">Seagull<\/p>\n<p>Robust seabirds, primarily scavengers (family Laridae). Several species of gulls live along the seacoast of the Holy Land. They are usually gray-backed with white heads and underparts and black wing tips. The slender bill ends in a downward curve.<\/p>\n<p>Seagulls may be 8 to 30 inches (20 to 76 centimeters) long. Many species migrate, traveling long distances with their superb flying ability. Gulls can also swim easily because of their webbed feet. Their voice is like a harsh scream or squawk. In nesting season many nest together in any available place, such as a cliff or tree. Both male and female incubate and care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>Because gulls will eat almost anything, they are listed as ritually unclean birds (Lv 11:16; Dt 14:15, <span>asv<\/span> has “sea mew,” a common European gull). Some commentators believe that those passages refer to an owl or to the cuckoo and not to the seagull.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cuckoo (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Sparrow\">Sparrow<\/p>\n<p>Small bird of the finch family (Fringillidae) or the weaver finch family (Ploceidae), considered to be of little worth. The Hebrew word is a general term for “bird” and refers to any small bird such as a sparrow, finch, thrush, or starling. In translation, however, the word sometimes refers to the common English or house sparrow (<em>Passer domestica;<\/em> Ps 84:3; Prv 26:2).<\/p>\n<p>Dull in color with a black throat, the male house sparrow is a noisy and energetic creature. The nest, when built in open places, has an opening on the side and is made of almost anything available. Sparrows also nest in sheltered places, in dwellings, boxes, or holes in trees. They lay four to seven eggs.<\/p>\n<p>The common or house sparrow was known in ancient Greece and Egypt. There it had a reputation for invading fields in large swarms and picking the seeds from them. It is a permanent resident of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The sparrow is prolific and lives in close association with humans. It was considered ritually clean. Sparrows brought low prices in countries where they were sold (Mt 10:29; Lk 12:6). Today in Near Eastern marketplaces, boys offer live sparrows for sale. Tied together in groups of four to six by strings attached to one leg, the birds fly about over the boys’ heads. Evidently such a sight was common in NT times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Stork\">Stork<\/p>\n<p>Long-legged, white wading bird (genus <em>Ciconia<\/em>) having large, powerful wings with glossy black primary and secondary feathers. The flapping of its wings produces a loud rushing sound. Connecting membranes between the toes prevent the bird from sinking into the mud. Its red bill is sharp and long, serving to seize and lift its prey out of the water. Storks are mute, lacking a voice box.<\/p>\n<p>Flocks of storks pass through the Holy Land during their September migration on the way to central and southern Africa and likewise in the spring on their return flight to their homes in northern Israel, Syria, and Europe. Storks travel in vast flocks during the day, spreading out against the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The stork’s faithful tending of the young is proverbial, as is its habit of returning annually to the same nesting place. Storks have the habit of adding to their nests each year, and it is possible to find nests that are 100 years old and have a height of more than three feet (.9 meter).<\/p>\n<p>Two species of storks frequent the Holy Land. The white stork <em>(Ciconia alba)<\/em> is 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) tall, and its wingspread is six feet (1.8 meters), enabling it to move with a slow, sustained flight or to soar. In folklore the white stork is sometimes considered to be a harbinger of good fortune.<\/p>\n<p>The black stork <em>(Ciconia nigra),<\/em> common around the Dead Sea valley, nests in trees; hence it may be the tree-dwelling species referred to in Psalm 104:17. The Hebrew name for “stork” means literally the “kingly one,” or the “loyal one,” a reference to the care of the bird for its young. Like the heron, the stork was ceremonially unclean because of its diet of aquatic organisms, refuse, small animals, birds, and reptiles (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Jeremiah mentioned the stork’s uncanny and instinctive knowledge of the time of its migration (Jer 8:7). Its impressive wings figured in one of Zechariah’s visions (Zec 5:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swallow\">Swallow<\/p>\n<p>Small, nearly black, forked-tailed bird with long, tapering wings, noted for its graceful flight <em>(hirundo rustica).<\/em> The small, weak feet are poorly adapted for walking. Swallows resemble swifts in shape and life habits but are somewhat smaller.<\/p>\n<p>The swallow’s large mouth enables it to catch insects while in flight. Colors vary from brown and blue to white. Swallows often nest in buildings, a feature noticed by the psalmist, who reported a swallow’s home at the temple (Ps 84:3).<\/p>\n<p>Swallows are basically resident in Israel, whereas the swift is a migratory bird noted for the regularity of its migratory schedule. The “swallow” of Isaiah 38:14 probably refers to a swift, as does Jeremiah 8:7, where the dependability of the bird is contrasted with the irregularity of God’s people. Proverbs 26:2 may be a reference to either the swallow or the swift.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swift (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swan\">Swan<\/p>\n<p>Large, graceful water birds. Two species of swan (genus <em>Cygnus<\/em>) are found in the Middle East as passing migrants <em>(Cygnus olor<\/em> and <em>Cygnus musicus).<\/em> Swans are known as the best musicians among the birds and were considered sacred to the god Apollo by the Greeks. Their voices sound like flutes and harps.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Leviticus 11:18 and Deuteronomy 14:16 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably not to the swan but to the water hen or the barn owl, since there seems little reason to declare the vegetarian swan an unclean animal. <em>See also<\/em> Owl, Barn or White (above); Water Hen (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Swift\">Swift<\/p>\n<p>Small, strong flyers (genus <em>Apus<\/em>). Like the swallow, the swift has long, bent wings and a cleft tail, enabling it to obtain great speed as it skims the ground and sweeps through the air. A swift devours a great many harmful insects, catching them in its mouth in flight. Many swifts make their nests in rooftops and in nooks and crannies of city walls. Their nests are built with strong feathers cemented together with saliva. Other swifts live in caves and clefts of rocks.<\/p>\n<p>Common swifts are native to Israel, and in the Jordan Valley they occur in large flocks. Isaiah 38:14 (<span>niv<\/span>) seems to be clear reference to the swift’s plaintive call, since the swallow’s sharp chirp is not a striking simile for a distraught king’s cry. The swift has a soft, delicate voice, and its cry could be easily interpreted as melodious wailing.<\/p>\n<p>The migratory swifts arrive on a precise schedule in the Holy Land in late winter, and immense flocks fill the cities with their cries. Thus the reference in Jeremiah 8:7 to swallows, which are largely permanent residents, is probably to swifts.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Swallow (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Vulture\">Vulture<\/p>\n<p>Subfamily (Aegypiinae) of the hawk family (Accipitridae). Each of the four species of Old World vultures is found in the Holy Land: the Egyptian, griffon, black, and bearded vulture (the bearded vulture is also known as the lammergeier). These birds range in size from the 24-inch (61-centimeters) Egyptian vulture to the huge bearded vulture, largest of all flying birds in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>Most vultures are brown or black, having a short neck and a short, hooked bill with which they tear the dead animal flesh of which they are fond. All vultures, except the bearded, have bare or down-covered heads and necks, enabling these scavengers to penetrate deep into a carcass without spoiling the plumage. Excellent eyesight enables a vulture to locate a carcass from a lofty soaring position. Considering the decayed condition of most of its food, a vulture’s poor sense of smell may be a fortunate limitation. Vultures nest in any convenient place; both parents care for the young.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word usually translated “eagle” in the OT may have been a general term for all large birds of prey, including vultures. Thus many of the passages about eagles may refer to either the eagle or the vulture (cf. Lv 11:13; Dt 14:12, <span>nasb<\/span> mg). Such passages include references to nesting habits (Jb 39:27-28; Jer 49:16; Ob 1:4), care for fledglings (Dt 32:11), powers of flight (Ex 19:4; Dt 28:49; Jb 9:26; Lam 4:19), and extremely high soaring altitude (Prv 23:5; 30:19; Is 40:31). Despite variations among translations, the vulture clearly belongs in the list of unclean birds because of its foul diet (Lv 11:13, 18; Dt 14:12, 17).<\/p>\n<p>Several references to the eagle in the <span>kjv<\/span> have been changed to “vulture” in modern translations. The change seems appropriate in the references to the vulture as a sign of present or impending doom (Lam 4:19; Hos 8:1). Likewise the eye-plucking bird of Proverbs 30:17 is probably a vulture. The phrase “bald as the eagle” (Mi 1:16) clearly should read “bald as the vulture,” since there are no bald eagles in Israel and most vultures are bald. Since the vulture, like the eagle, was a symbol of sovereignty and domination in the ancient Near East, some gods were represented as vultures. Thus Ezekiel’s comparison of the kings of Babylon and Egypt to eagles may be conceived alternatively as comparisons to vultures (Ez 17:3, 7). Jesus’ reference to the eagles congregating around corpses at the end times (Mt 24:28) should also be revised to vultures, since eagles are usually solitary eaters, whereas vultures generally flock together around carrion.<\/p>\n<p>Several <span>kjv<\/span> references to vultures are usually translated “kite” or “falcon” in modern translations (cf. various versions of Lv 11:14; Dt 14:13; Jb 28:7; Is 34:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Kestrel; Kite; Lammergeier; Vulture, Black, or Osprey; Vulture, Egyptian; Vulture, Griffon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureBlackorOsprey\">Vulture, Black, or Osprey<\/p>\n<p>Diurnal flesh eater, a little over three feet (.9 meter) long with a wingspread of over three yards (2.7 meters). The feathers of the black or osprey vulture (<em>Aegypius monachus<\/em>) are black and the head and upper part of the neck are bald like those of other carrion eaters. It nests in the Jordan River valley and seems to have been abundant in biblical times. Today it is quite rare. The black vulture is probably the osprey of Leviticus 11:13 and Deuteronomy 14:12.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureEgyptian\">Vulture, Egyptian<\/p>\n<p>Also known as the gier eagle or as pharaoh’s hen. The plumage of the Egyptian vulture (<em>Neophron percnopterus<\/em>) is basically white with a naked head and yellow neck. The Egyptian vulture breaks bones left by other vultures. Its flight is slow and easy, and its voice is a croak. Measuring about 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length, it is the smallest of all the carrion-eating birds found in the Holy Land. It may be referred to in the list of unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:17, “gier eagle,” <span>kjv<\/span>; “carrion vulture,” <span>rsv<\/span>, <span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VultureGriffon\">Vulture, Griffon<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest flying birds in the Holy Land <em>(Gyps fulvus).<\/em> Until a generation ago, the griffon vulture was one of the most common birds in the Holy Land. Today it is on the verge of extinction. Many have been killed by eating poisonous bait meant for foxes and jackals. In addition, its reproduction is limited; the female lays only one or two eggs a year.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture measures about four feet (121.9 centimeters) in length and up to ten feet (3 meters) between wing tips. Its beak is extremely strong, and its short toes are fitted with blunt talons. It is a light-brown bird with a pale yellow head and neck that are almost bare, being covered only with a very fine down.<\/p>\n<p>The griffon vulture feeds mostly on carrion, but also on locusts and small tortoises. It is able to go without food for several days with no ill effects, but when it does break its fast, it gorges itself. It is found especially in the region of the Sea of Galilee. Most biblical references to the vulture are likely to be to the griffon vulture.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eagle; Vulture (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"WaterHen\">Water Hen<\/p>\n<p>Small water bird of the rail family. The water hen listed among unclean birds (Lv 11:18; Dt 14:16, <span>rsv<\/span> only) may be the biblical bird most difficult to identify. Several alternatives have been suggested, including the swan (<span>kjv<\/span>), one of the owls (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>neb<\/span>), or the marsh hen (<span>tlb<\/span>). Most scholars rule out the swan, since it is a vegetarian bird and thus should not be considered unclean. An owl remains a possibility.<\/p>\n<p>The marsh hen is a rail, several species of which inhabit Israel. One of those species is the purple gallinule <em>(Porphyrio porphyrio).<\/em> Rails are very thin birds varying from 6 to 20 inches (15 to 51 centimeters) in length. They live in marshes, where they eat a great variety of animal and vegetable matter, thus making them a candidate for inclusion in the Mosaic lists of unclean animals.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","summary_en":"BIRDS Feathered vertebrates of the class Aves. Over 8,000 species of birds are known. Approximately 400 species are found in the Holy Land and about 40 are mentioned in Scripture. Modern scientists classify organisms on the basis of internal and external structure, but the biblical writers generally classified organisms according to habitat. Thus, in the Bible, bats are listed with birds as creatures of the air (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18). Precise identification of biblical birds is often difficult ...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53501,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:33","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","summary_en":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81127,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:33","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","summary_en":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108753,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:33","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","summary_en":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136379,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:33","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:33","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:33<\/strong> This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","summary_en":"4:33 This disease, called boanthropy, causes a person to behave like an ox. Several ancient sources lend support to this account, and the king’s annals are notably empty from 582 to 575 BC.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":41968,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69594,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97220,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124846,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II","title_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II","content_ro":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Nebuchadnezzar II<\/h3>\n<p>King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 <span>BC<\/span>. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>In 626 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 <span>BC<\/span>, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Assyrians at Haran in 609 <span>BC<\/span>. By the time of this battle, Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar played a leading role in the army. In 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the remnant of the Assyrian army at Carchemish; this victory also pushed the Egyptians back within their borders. In the same year, Nabopolassar died and his son became king.<\/p>\n<p>Following his victory at Carchemish in 605 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Syria and surrounding areas, including Judah. In that year, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for the first time (2 Kgs 24:1; 1:1-2). He took away a number of the Temple vessels and some of the leading young citizens of Judah, including Daniel and his three friends. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem again in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:10-17). He later besieged Jerusalem in 588 <span>BC<\/span> and destroyed the city and Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, exiling most of the remaining people (2 Kgs 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>A detailed and interesting personal description of Nebuchadnezzar is found in Daniel. He brought Daniel and his friends to Babylon in order to educate them in the ways of Babylonia, but God used Daniel to teach Nebuchadnezzar about himself. After being humbled for his great pride (Dan 4:28-33), Nebuchadnezzar acknowledged the Lord’s sovereignty and power (4:34-37), though he probably never worshiped the true God exclusively.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 24:1–25:30; 2 Chr 36:6-21; Jer 21:1-10; 22:24-27; 24:1; 25:1-14; 27:4-8; 28:14; 29:1-23; 32:1-5, 26-31; 34:1-3; 37:1; 39:1-14; 43:10-13; 46:2, 13-26; 49:28-33; 50:17; 51:34; 52:4-16, 28-30; Ezek 26:7; 29:18-20; 30:10-11; Dan 1:1–4:37<\/p>","summary_ro":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","summary_en":"Nebuchadnezzar II King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned over Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. He secured and extended the empire of his father, Nabopolassar (626–605 BC). Beyond the scriptural record, many ancient Babylonian documents report Nebuchadnezzar’s accomplishments. In 626 BC, Babylon, like Judah, was under the domination of Assyria, but in that year Nabopolassar began a revolt that would change the world. In 612 BC, the Babylonians captured Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, and again defeated the Ass...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21807,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53502,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:34","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","summary_en":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81128,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:34","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","summary_en":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108754,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:34","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","summary_en":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136380,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:34","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:34-37<\/strong> Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the <em>Most High<\/em><em>,<\/em> the <em>King of heaven<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","summary_en":"4:34-37 Nebuchadnezzar now acknowledged and submitted to the higher authority of the Most High, the King of heaven.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64208,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64712,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91834,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92338,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119460,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119964,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147086,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\n<p>Nations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147590,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","title_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Sovereignty over All Nations<\/h3>\n<p>In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (Amos 9:7). God had created the entire cosmos, not just Israel (4:13; 5:8), so he was perfectly justified in requiring that nations conduct their affairs with justice and mercy (1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>One heresy prevalent among the people of Judah and Israel was that, in spite of their sinfulness, God would eventually vindicate them because of his covenant with them (see Jer 7:4; Amos 3:1-2; 9:10). They developed a false theology of the day of the Lord: They thought that God’s intervention in history automatically meant deliverance for them and destruction for their enemies. Amos directly confronted this false notion of privilege (9:7; see also 5:18-20). The day of the Lord would not absolve sinful Israel; rather, God would use it to punish them.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s position of privilege among the nations made them more responsible, not less. While the surrounding nations would be punished for their particularly grievous sins, Israel would be punished for all their sins (3:2). The New Testament further develops this theme of the greater responsibility of God’s people: Those who receive much are responsible for much (Luke 12:48; Jas 3:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 15:18; Deut 32:8; 1 Chr 29:11-12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 2:1-12; 7:6-8; 10:16; 22:28; 47:2; 83:18; 93:1-5; 103:19; Dan 2:20-21, 47; 4:34-37; Amos 9:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 17:24-26; 1 Tim 1:17; 6:15; Rev 15:3-4; 17:14; 19:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","summary_en":"God’s Sovereignty over All Nations In the ancient world, nations often considered religion in terms of a national god or gods. The king of Aram, for example, believed Israel’s “gods” were tied to the hills and would not be able to act elsewhere (1 Kgs 20:23). Jephthah demonstrated a pagan heritage by saying that the god Chemosh had given the Ammonites their land (Judg 11:24). The prophet Amos, by contrast, knew that God alone had brought the Philistines from Crete and the Arameans from Kir (A...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":12682,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Foreordination*","title_en":"Foreordination*","content_ro":"<h3>FOREORDINATION*<\/h3>\n<p>Activity of God by which he establishes events and outcomes before they occur. In common usage, “foreordination” and the term “predestination” are synonymous. “Predestination” and “election,” however, specifically refer to the destiny of persons.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination was referred to by many early church fathers and was a major emphasis in the theology of Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Augustine greatly influenced the Reformers, particularly John Calvin. Reformed theologians begin the study of the doctrine of foreordination with the eternal decree of God, as indicated by creeds such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. The decree of God is one, but for purposes of discussion and explanation it is usually referred to as “the decrees of God.” Martin Luther believed in foreordination but did not stress it as much as Calvin. Luther’s theology is generally silent on foreordination, primarily discussing predestination, or election. Contemporary Lutheran thought stresses conditional, rather than absolute election, that is, election or predestination based on foreseen faith.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination underlies the whole plan of God: his decision to create the universe, to care for it (providence), and to determine its destiny “according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Westminster Shorter Catechism states the teaching in this way: God has decreed “his eternal purpose according to the counsel of his will, whereby, for his own glory, he hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass.” Foreordination, then, is at the foundation of all Christian teaching, for it concerns the history and destiny of the whole world, the universe, and all that it contains.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul spoke of God’s plan for the fulfillment of all creation: “For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God; for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of him who subjected it in hope; because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God” (Rom 8:19-21, <span>rsv<\/span>). Scripture gives only a glimpse of the redemption of the whole creation. It speaks of new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells (2 Pt 3:13). Those things that mar human existence and demonstrate human fallenness and sinfulness (i.e., depravity) will all pass away. God will make “all things new” (Rv 21:1-5), so the destiny of everything rests with God himself.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination creates problems for theology and commonsense thinking, particularly in relation to human freedom and responsibility and that aspect of foreordination concerned with salvation. How can people be held responsible for their actions and decisions if those actions have been predetermined? To remove that difficulty, some have denied God’s foreordination as it relates to human freedom. In creating free beings, they argue, God must have limited his determination of things that “must” come to pass. Otherwise, free and responsible human activity has no meaning. Calvinism rejects such an argument, insisting that free activity is possible even though it is foreordained and foreknown.<\/p>\n<p>Denial of the doctrine of foreordination implies that God does not control his creation. If that were true, the existence and happenings in the universe, including human activity, would be determined either by something above or beyond God, or by occurrences whose ultimate causes are unknown. God’s providence and care revealed in the Bible and human experience make such a view untenable. Christian thought generally states that God foreordains and controls his creation and that humans are able to act freely and responsibly within that larger control. The apparent contradiction or paradox remains unresolved because there is a limit to human understanding.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ForeordinationinScripture\">Foreordination in Scripture<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to foreordination (including predestination, or election) and the related idea of foreknowledge in the Bible. Foreordination can be thought of as logically prior to foreknowledge, but there is no actual priority since both activities are eternal in God.<\/p>\n<p>Speaking of judgment to come upon Babylon, God said, “This is the purpose that is purposed concerning the whole earth; and this is the hand that is stretched out over all the nations. For the <span>Lord<\/span> of hosts has purposed, and who will annul it? His hand is stretched out, and who will turn it back?” (Is 14:26-27, <span>rsv<\/span>). God also declared that he has determined the end from the beginning. “My counsel shall stand, and I will accomplish all my purpose” (Is 46:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). Paul stated that the purpose of God is carried out “according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Ps 119:89-91; Dn 4:35).<\/p>\n<p>With respect to human affairs, it is said that one’s life span is determined (Jb 14:5), that God’s concern extends to his creatures (Ps 104:14-30; Mt 10:29), and even the hairs on our heads are numbered (Mt 10:30). Furthermore, God’s plan extends to peoples and nations, for “he made from one every nation of men to live on all the face of the earth, having determined allotted periods and the boundaries of their habitation” (Acts 17:26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God knows and even uses people’s evil acts for his own ends. For example, although Joseph’s brothers sinned by selling him into slavery, Joseph later said, “As for you, you meant evil against me; but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today” (Gn 50:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus, but God used that sinful intent. Jesus said, “For the Son of man goes as it has been determined; but woe to that man by whom he is betrayed!” (Lk 22:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). On the day of Pentecost the apostle Peter said, “This Jesus, delivered up according to the definite plan and foreknowledge of God, you crucified and killed by the hands of lawless men” (Acts 2:23, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. 4:27-28). Paul refers to God’s determining authority over Pharaoh’s acts (Rom 9:17). Revelation 17:17 says, “God has put it into their hearts to carry out his purpose” (<span>rsv<\/span>). God, then, foreordains the events of nature and history, and even evil acts are subject to his control and are made to fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Election of sinners to salvation through Christ is also included in God’s foreordination (Rom 8:28-39; cf. Acts 13:48; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Pt 2:9). God’s plan of salvation is grounded in his eternal love and good pleasure (Eph 1:3-14; Rom 5:6-11). The Christian is the recipient of God’s grace in that the believer knows God and is known (i.e., loved) by God (Gal 4:9). Both election and believers’ faith are part of the salvation process.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ForeordinationandProvidence\">Foreordination and Providence<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine of foreordination is implied in the doctrine of providence or God’s care. Providence is the working out of God’s plan for the world. God’s care and control of the whole creation point to his plan of redemption for man and woman made in his image. God sovereignly controls the events that take place in the world, but God is not responsible for sin. He created human beings who may say no to God as well as yes. That does not mean that God’s plan can be thwarted; it goes on in spite of opposition. God’s ultimate plan is being realized through all the events of human history, evil and good. Yet his sovereignty is not imposed arbitrarily. God is not a tyrant but rather is holy, loving, and righteous. His plan is carried out according to his nature, which is expressed in care and concern for the whole creation and in steadfast love for undeserving sinners.<\/p>\n<p>“Natural law” refers to the rules God has laid down (foreordained) to control the universe. What about destructive forces of nature, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes? Why are such apparent evils necessary in a world made and controlled by a loving God? It is no answer to suggest that God is unable to act or control nature fully. If life’s total meaning resided in the temporal, physical world, there might be reason for complaint. But considering the whole plan of God and his ultimate redemptive purpose, the answer takes on a different dimension. God’s ultimate purpose transcends the present life and centers in the fullness of the redemptive kingdom yet to be revealed (Rv 11:15; 21:1-4). The doctrine of foreordination is a great mystery, but it should be a source of joy and comfort to believers whose loving Lord has brought them to a knowledge of his great plan.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elect, Election; Foreknowledge.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FOREORDINATION*<\/h3>\n<p>Activity of God by which he establishes events and outcomes before they occur. In common usage, “foreordination” and the term “predestination” are synonymous. “Predestination” and “election,” however, specifically refer to the destiny of persons.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination was referred to by many early church fathers and was a major emphasis in the theology of Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Augustine greatly influenced the Reformers, particularly John Calvin. Reformed theologians begin the study of the doctrine of foreordination with the eternal decree of God, as indicated by creeds such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. The decree of God is one, but for purposes of discussion and explanation it is usually referred to as “the decrees of God.” Martin Luther believed in foreordination but did not stress it as much as Calvin. Luther’s theology is generally silent on foreordination, primarily discussing predestination, or election. Contemporary Lutheran thought stresses conditional, rather than absolute election, that is, election or predestination based on foreseen faith.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination underlies the whole plan of God: his decision to create the universe, to care for it (providence), and to determine its destiny “according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Westminster Shorter Catechism states the teaching in this way: God has decreed “his eternal purpose according to the counsel of his will, whereby, for his own glory, he hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass.” Foreordination, then, is at the foundation of all Christian teaching, for it concerns the history and destiny of the whole world, the universe, and all that it contains.<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul spoke of God’s plan for the fulfillment of all creation: “For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God; for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of him who subjected it in hope; because the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God” (Rom 8:19-21, <span>rsv<\/span>). Scripture gives only a glimpse of the redemption of the whole creation. It speaks of new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells (2 Pt 3:13). Those things that mar human existence and demonstrate human fallenness and sinfulness (i.e., depravity) will all pass away. God will make “all things new” (Rv 21:1-5), so the destiny of everything rests with God himself.<\/p>\n<p>Foreordination creates problems for theology and commonsense thinking, particularly in relation to human freedom and responsibility and that aspect of foreordination concerned with salvation. How can people be held responsible for their actions and decisions if those actions have been predetermined? To remove that difficulty, some have denied God’s foreordination as it relates to human freedom. In creating free beings, they argue, God must have limited his determination of things that “must” come to pass. Otherwise, free and responsible human activity has no meaning. Calvinism rejects such an argument, insisting that free activity is possible even though it is foreordained and foreknown.<\/p>\n<p>Denial of the doctrine of foreordination implies that God does not control his creation. If that were true, the existence and happenings in the universe, including human activity, would be determined either by something above or beyond God, or by occurrences whose ultimate causes are unknown. God’s providence and care revealed in the Bible and human experience make such a view untenable. Christian thought generally states that God foreordains and controls his creation and that humans are able to act freely and responsibly within that larger control. The apparent contradiction or paradox remains unresolved because there is a limit to human understanding.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ForeordinationinScripture\">Foreordination in Scripture<\/p>\n<p>There are many references to foreordination (including predestination, or election) and the related idea of foreknowledge in the Bible. Foreordination can be thought of as logically prior to foreknowledge, but there is no actual priority since both activities are eternal in God.<\/p>\n<p>Speaking of judgment to come upon Babylon, God said, “This is the purpose that is purposed concerning the whole earth; and this is the hand that is stretched out over all the nations. For the <span>Lord<\/span> of hosts has purposed, and who will annul it? His hand is stretched out, and who will turn it back?” (Is 14:26-27, <span>rsv<\/span>). God also declared that he has determined the end from the beginning. “My counsel shall stand, and I will accomplish all my purpose” (Is 46:10, <span>rsv<\/span>). Paul stated that the purpose of God is carried out “according to the counsel of his will” (Eph 1:11, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Ps 119:89-91; Dn 4:35).<\/p>\n<p>With respect to human affairs, it is said that one’s life span is determined (Jb 14:5), that God’s concern extends to his creatures (Ps 104:14-30; Mt 10:29), and even the hairs on our heads are numbered (Mt 10:30). Furthermore, God’s plan extends to peoples and nations, for “he made from one every nation of men to live on all the face of the earth, having determined allotted periods and the boundaries of their habitation” (Acts 17:26, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God knows and even uses people’s evil acts for his own ends. For example, although Joseph’s brothers sinned by selling him into slavery, Joseph later said, “As for you, you meant evil against me; but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today” (Gn 50:20, <span>rsv<\/span>). Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus, but God used that sinful intent. Jesus said, “For the Son of man goes as it has been determined; but woe to that man by whom he is betrayed!” (Lk 22:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). On the day of Pentecost the apostle Peter said, “This Jesus, delivered up according to the definite plan and foreknowledge of God, you crucified and killed by the hands of lawless men” (Acts 2:23, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. 4:27-28). Paul refers to God’s determining authority over Pharaoh’s acts (Rom 9:17). Revelation 17:17 says, “God has put it into their hearts to carry out his purpose” (<span>rsv<\/span>). God, then, foreordains the events of nature and history, and even evil acts are subject to his control and are made to fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\n<p>Election of sinners to salvation through Christ is also included in God’s foreordination (Rom 8:28-39; cf. Acts 13:48; Phil 2:12-13; 1 Pt 2:9). God’s plan of salvation is grounded in his eternal love and good pleasure (Eph 1:3-14; Rom 5:6-11). The Christian is the recipient of God’s grace in that the believer knows God and is known (i.e., loved) by God (Gal 4:9). Both election and believers’ faith are part of the salvation process.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ForeordinationandProvidence\">Foreordination and Providence<\/p>\n<p>The doctrine of foreordination is implied in the doctrine of providence or God’s care. Providence is the working out of God’s plan for the world. God’s care and control of the whole creation point to his plan of redemption for man and woman made in his image. God sovereignly controls the events that take place in the world, but God is not responsible for sin. He created human beings who may say no to God as well as yes. That does not mean that God’s plan can be thwarted; it goes on in spite of opposition. God’s ultimate plan is being realized through all the events of human history, evil and good. Yet his sovereignty is not imposed arbitrarily. God is not a tyrant but rather is holy, loving, and righteous. His plan is carried out according to his nature, which is expressed in care and concern for the whole creation and in steadfast love for undeserving sinners.<\/p>\n<p>“Natural law” refers to the rules God has laid down (foreordained) to control the universe. What about destructive forces of nature, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes? Why are such apparent evils necessary in a world made and controlled by a loving God? It is no answer to suggest that God is unable to act or control nature fully. If life’s total meaning resided in the temporal, physical world, there might be reason for complaint. But considering the whole plan of God and his ultimate redemptive purpose, the answer takes on a different dimension. God’s ultimate purpose transcends the present life and centers in the fullness of the redemptive kingdom yet to be revealed (Rv 11:15; 21:1-4). The doctrine of foreordination is a great mystery, but it should be a source of joy and comfort to believers whose loving Lord has brought them to a knowledge of his great plan.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elect, Election; Foreknowledge.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FOREORDINATION* Activity of God by which he establishes events and outcomes before they occur. In common usage, “foreordination” and the term “predestination” are synonymous. “Predestination” and “election,” however, specifically refer to the destiny of persons. Foreordination was referred to by many early church fathers and was a major emphasis in the theology of Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Augustine greatly influenced the Reformers, particularly John Calvin. Reformed theologians begin the...","summary_en":"FOREORDINATION* Activity of God by which he establishes events and outcomes before they occur. In common usage, “foreordination” and the term “predestination” are synonymous. “Predestination” and “election,” however, specifically refer to the destiny of persons. Foreordination was referred to by many early church fathers and was a major emphasis in the theology of Augustine of Hippo (354–430). Augustine greatly influenced the Reformers, particularly John Calvin. Reformed theologians begin the...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53503,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:35","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","summary_en":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81129,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:35","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","summary_en":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108755,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:35","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","summary_en":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136381,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:35","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:35","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:35<\/strong> <em>He does as he pleases:<\/em> God has absolute power in <em>heaven<\/em> and on <em>earth<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","summary_en":"4:35 He does as he pleases: God has absolute power in heaven and on earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64776,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92402,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120028,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147654,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","title_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose","content_ro":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose<\/h3>\n<p>God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>But often the ways in which God works out his purposes are confusing to his people. Such perplexity is evidenced in the prophetic book of Habakkuk. Habakkuk had a candid relationship with God: The prophet felt free to bring his honest concerns to the Lord, and God did not rebuke him for doing so. From Habakkuk’s perspective, God seemed inactive in the face of the violence and social injustice plaguing Judah (Hab 1:2-4). God then revealed that he would take action: He was going to raise up the Babylonians—a nation even more wicked than Judah—to punish Judah (1:5-11). This further perplexed Habakkuk. Yet God’s assurance that justice would be done, along with a vision of God’s glory, brought the prophet to settled faith and praise (3:16-19).<\/p>\n<p>Habakkuk’s journey is similar to that of most believers. When times of doubt and discouragement come, believers can approach the Lord and pour out their questions and concerns to him. He may not provide all the answers, and the answers he does provide may not be what we want to hear. But like Habakkuk, we may receive a fresh glimpse of who God is and what he is like, which will enable us to renew our trust in the One who is in control.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 29:29; Pss 47:9; 139:6; 145:3; Isa 55:8-9; Dan 4:25, 35; Hab 1:2-11; 2:2-20; 3:2-19; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 11:33-34; 13:1; Eph 1:3-10; Col 1:15-20; 2 Pet 3:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","summary_en":"Human Perplexity and God’s Purpose God is not an absent deity, or one who only intervenes on a rare occasion. He is intimately involved and active in what comes to pass in this world so that everything might work toward his purpose (2:3, 14; see also Ps 47:9; Acts 17:24-26; Col 1:15-20). The Lord is a holy and merciful God who acts in history to redeem his people (Hab 3:2-15; see also Eph 1:3-10; 2 Pet 3:15) so that all may ultimately see his glory (Hab 2:14). But often the ways in which God ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":8584,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53504,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:37","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:37","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","summary_en":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81130,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:37","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:37","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","summary_en":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108756,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:37","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:37","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","summary_en":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136382,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 4:37","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 4:37","content_ro":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>4:37<\/strong> The Most High God is the <em>King of heaven<\/em> as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","summary_en":"4:37 The Most High God is the King of heaven as well as of earth. Human pride has no place before him, even that of the greatest of human kings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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