Daniel 6
1 Dariu a găsit cu cale să pună peste împărăţie o sută două zeci de dregători, cari trebuiau să fie răspândiţi în toată împărăţia;
2 a pus în fruntea lor trei căpetenii, în numărul cărora era şi Daniel. Dregătorii aceştia aveau să le dea socoteală, ca împăratul să nu sufere nici o pagubă.
3 Daniel însă întrecea pe toate aceste căpetenii şi pe dregători, pentru că în el era un duh înalt; şi împăratul se gândea să-l pună peste toată împărăţia.
4 Atunci căpeteniile şi dregătorii au căutat să afle ceva asupra lui Daniel, ca să-l pârască în ce privea treburile împărăţiei. Dar n-au putut să găsească nimic, niciun lucru vrednic de mustrare, pentrucă el era credincios, şi nu se găsea nici o greşală la el şi niciun lucru rău.
5 Atunci oamenii aceştia au zis: ,,Nu vom găsi niciun cuvânt de plângere împotriva acestui Daniel, afară numai dacă am găsi vreunul în Legea Dumnezeului lui!``
6 Apoi aceste căpetenii şi dregătorii aceştia s-au dus cu mare zarvă la împărat, şi i-au vorbit aşa: ,,Să trăieşti vecinic, împărate Dariu!``
7 Toate căpeteniile împărăţiei, îngrijitorii, dregătorii, sfetnicii, şi cârmuitorii sânt de părere să se dea o poruncă împărătească, însoţită de o aspră oprire, care să spună că oricine va înălţa, în timp de trei zeci de zile, rugăciuni către vreun dumnezeu sau către vreun om, afară de tine, împărate, va fi aruncat în groapa cu lei.
8 Acum, împărate, întăreşte oprirea, şi iscăleşte porunca aceasta, pentru ca să nu se poată schimba, după legea Mezilor şi Perşilor, care, odată dată, rămâne neschimbată.``
9 În urma celor de mai sus, împăratul Dariu a scris porunca şi oprirea.
10 Când a aflat Daniel că s-a iscălit porunca, a intrat în casa lui, unde ferestrele odăii de sus erau deschise înspre Ierusalim, şi de trei ori pe zi îngenunchea, se ruga şi lăuda pe Dumnezeul lui, cum făcea şi mai înainte.
11 Atunci oamenii aceştia au dat năvală în casă, şi au găsit pe Daniel rugându-se şi chemând pe Dumnezeul lui.
12 Apoi s-au înfăţişat înaintea împăratului, şi i-au zis cu privire la oprirea împărătească: ,,N-ai scris tu o oprire, care spune că oricine va înălţa, timp de trei zeci de zile, rugăciuni vreunui dumnezeu sau vreunui om, afară de tine, împărate, să fie aruncat în groapa cu lei? ,,Împăratul a răspuns: ,,Lucrul acesta este adevărat, după legea Mezilor şi Perşilor, care nu se poate schimba!``
13 Ei au luat din nou cuvântul şi au zis împăratului: ,,Daniel, unul din prinşii de război ai lui Iuda, nu ţine deloc seama de tine, împărate, nici de oprirea pe care ai scris-o, şi îşi face rugăciunea de trei ori pe zi!``
14 Împăratul s-a mâhnit foarte mult când a auzit lucrul acesta; s-a gândit cum ar putea să scape pe Daniel; şi până la asfinţitul soarelui s-a trudit să-l scape.
15 Dar oamenii aceia au stăruit de împărat, şi i-au zis: ,,Să ştii, împărate, că, după legea Mezilor şi Perşilor, orice oprire sau orice poruncă, întărită de împărat, nu se poate schimba!``
16 Atunci împăratul a poruncit să aducă pe Daniel, şi să-l arunce în groapa cu lei. Împăratul a luat cuvântul şi a zis lui Daniel: ,,Dumnezeul tău, căruia necurmat Îi slujeşti, să te scape!``
17 Au adus o piatră, şi au pus-o la gura gropii. Împăratul a pecetluit-o cu inelul lui şi cu inelul mai marilor lui, ca să nu se schimbe nimic cu privire la Daniel.
18 Împăratul s-a întors apoi în palatul său, a petrecut noaptea fără să mănânce, nu i s-a adus nicio ţiitoare, şi n-a putut să doarmă.
19 În revărsatul zorilor, însă, împăratul s-a sculat şi s-a dus în grabă la groapa cu lei.
20 Şi apropiindu-se de groapă, a chemat pe Daniel cu un glas plângător. Împăratul a luat cuvântul, şi a zis lui Daniel: ,,Daniele, robul Dumnezeului celui viu, a putut Dumnezeul tău, căruia îi slujeşti necurmat, să te scape de lei?``
21 Şi Daniel a zis împăratului: ,,Vecinic să trăieşti, împărate!
22 Dumnezeul meu a trimes pe îngerul Său şi a închis gura leilor, cari nu mi-au făcut niciun rău, pentrucă am fost găsit nevinovat înaintea Lui. Şi nici înaintea ta, împărate, n-am făcut nimic rău!``
23 Atunci împăratul s-a bucurat foarte mult, şi a poruncit să scoată pe Daniel din groapă. Daniel a fost scos din groapă, şi nu s-a găsit nicio rană pe el, pentrucă avusese încredere în Dumnezeul său.
24 Împăratul a poruncit să aducă pe oamenii aceia cari pârâseră pe Daniel. Şi au fost aruncaţi în groapa cu lei, ei, copiii lor şi nevestele lor; şi, până să ajungă în fundul gropii, leii i-au şi apucat şi le-au fărâmiţat oasele.
25 După aceea, împăratul Dariu a scris o scrisoare către toate popoarele, către toate neamurile, către oamenii de toate limbile, cari locuiau în toată împărăţia: ,,Pacea să vă fie dată din belşug!
26 Poruncesc ca, în toată întinderea împărăţiei mele, oamenii să se teamă şi să se înfricoşeze de Dumnezeul lui Daniel. Căci El este Dumnezeul cel viu, şi El dăinuieşte vecinic; împărăţia Lui nu se va nimici niciodată, şi stăpânirea Lui nu va avea sfârşit.
27 El izbăveşte şi mântuieşte, El face semne şi minuni în ceruri şi pe pământ. El a izbăvit pe Daniel din ghirele leilor!``
28 Daniel a dus-o bine supt domnia lui Dariu şi supt domnia lui Cir, Persanul.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":8589,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34002,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Satrap*","title_en":"Satrap*","content_ro":"<h3>SATRAP*<\/h3>\n<p>Governor who held jurisdiction over a number of provinces within the king’s domain. This official represented the authority of the king in both civil and military matters, and supplied the means for maintaining the king’s sovereignty over the whole empire. Satraps were listed among the high-ranking officers of the Babylonian and Persian empires (Ezr 8:36; Est 3:12; 9:3; Dn 6:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SATRAP*<\/h3>\n<p>Governor who held jurisdiction over a number of provinces within the king’s domain. This official represented the authority of the king in both civil and military matters, and supplied the means for maintaining the king’s sovereignty over the whole empire. Satraps were listed among the high-ranking officers of the Babylonian and Persian empires (Ezr 8:36; Est 3:12; 9:3; Dn 6:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SATRAP* Governor who held jurisdiction over a number of provinces within the king’s domain. This official represented the authority of the king in both civil and military matters, and supplied the means for maintaining the king’s sovereignty over the whole empire. Satraps were listed among the high-ranking officers of the Babylonian and Persian empires (Ezr 8:36; Est 3:12; 9:3; Dn 6:1-7).","summary_en":"SATRAP* Governor who held jurisdiction over a number of provinces within the king’s domain. This official represented the authority of the king in both civil and military matters, and supplied the means for maintaining the king’s sovereignty over the whole empire. Satraps were listed among the high-ranking officers of the Babylonian and Persian empires (Ezr 8:36; Est 3:12; 9:3; Dn 6:1-7).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","summary_en":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","summary_en":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108777,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","summary_en":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136403,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-28<\/strong> God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","summary_en":"6:1-28 God rescued and delivered his faithful servant Daniel (5:23; 6:20), whereas Belshazzar’s dead gods could not save him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61284,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88910,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116536,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144162,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":41949,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69575,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97201,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124827,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8545,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Daniel (Person)","title_en":"Daniel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","summary_en":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","summary_en":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","summary_en":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108778,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","summary_en":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136404,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> The three <em>administrators<\/em> placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • <em>and protect the king’s interests:<\/em> Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","summary_en":"6:2 The three administrators placed over the whole territory reported directly to the king. • and protect the king’s interests: Rebels could bring down the empire, so these administrators had to be absolutely trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":53527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","summary_en":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","summary_en":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","summary_en":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","summary_en":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108779,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","summary_en":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108780,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","summary_en":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136405,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-5<\/strong> <em>Daniel<\/em><em>’<\/em>s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","summary_en":"6:3-5 Daniel’s integrity was unassailable and his abilities unmatched, so the envious administrators found fault with Daniel’s strongest point, his faithful worship of God. Daniel was about 80~85 years old at this time. He had led an exemplary life in Babylon.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136406,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3<\/strong> <em>the king made plans to place him over the entire empire:<\/em> Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","summary_en":"6:3 the king made plans to place him over the entire empire: Cp. 2:48-49; 3:30; Gen 41:40-43.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":53529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","summary_en":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","summary_en":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","summary_en":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136407,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> <em>rules of his religion:<\/em> Literally <em>law<\/em> [or<em> requirements<\/em>]<em> of his God<\/em> (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","summary_en":"6:5 rules of his religion: Literally law [or requirements] of his God (cp. 6:8, 12, 15; Ezra 7:12, 14, 25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":60256,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ancient Law Codes","title_en":"Ancient Law Codes","content_ro":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","summary_en":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87882,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ancient Law Codes","title_en":"Ancient Law Codes","content_ro":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","summary_en":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115508,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ancient Law Codes","title_en":"Ancient Law Codes","content_ro":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","summary_en":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143134,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ancient Law Codes","title_en":"Ancient Law Codes","content_ro":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ancient Law Codes<\/h3>\n<p>Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s <span>BC<\/span>, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken from Hammurabi, subsequent discoveries produced law codes preceding Hammurabi’s by at least 500 years, and several laws are common to all of them, so Hammurabi also did not originate them.<\/p>\n<p>What does this mean for the Bible? First, it is not surprising that we find similar laws from cultures neighboring Israel; similar societies require similar codes of conduct in order to ensure justice. Second, the biblical laws are unique in that they are incorporated in a covenant with God. Elsewhere in the ancient Near East, religious laws (about sacrifice, prayers, offerings, etc.) and civil laws (covering theft, lying, sexual conduct, murder, etc.) were completely unrelated because ethics and religion were considered separate domains. Religion was a matter of prayer, devotion, offerings, and ritual behavior—the territory of priests. Ethics concerned social and civil behavior—the business of the king. The biblical view of things is different: God is sovereign over both religion and society. So a person who is in a relationship with the true God must not only participate in proper worship (religion) but also treat other people rightly (ethics).<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s covenant with God made use of existing forms but invested them with new meaning. For example, the basic layout of Israel’s Tabernacle (Exod 26–27) and Temple (see 1 Kgs 6:1–7:51) were the same as elsewhere in the ancient world, and the basic forms of the Hebrew sacrifices (see Lev 1–7) were largely identical to the forms of pagan sacrifices. But the meaning and purpose of the Temple and the sacrifices were significantly different from the meaning and purpose of such things in paganism (see study notes on Exod 20:3-17; 25:1–40:38; Lev 1:1–7:38).<\/p>\n<p>While many of the laws of Moses were not new to the world at that time, the idea that the behavior they called for is written into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator was radically new.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 20:1–23:33; 34:1–35:3; Lev 1:1–27:34; Deut 4:1–33:29; Ezra 1:1-4; Esth 1:13-19; 8:9-14; Dan 6:6-9; Luke 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","summary_en":"Ancient Law Codes Until the late 1800s, the law of Moses was believed to be a unique code of law, existing nearly a thousand years before anything comparable in Greek and Roman laws. Excavations in Persia in the late 1800s, however, uncovered laws set forth by the Babylonian king Hammurabi in the 1700s BC, some 300 years prior to Moses. Surprisingly, a number of the laws in that list are almost identical to those in the Bible. Though this seemed to imply that the biblical laws had been taken ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":1992,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","summary_en":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","summary_en":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","summary_en":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136408,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:7","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:7<\/strong> <em>the king should make a law:<\/em> The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","summary_en":"6:7 the king should make a law: The request was couched as an appeal to truth and justice, but it was really an appeal to the king’s pride, with ulterior motives (6:4-5). • We already know that Daniel would not break God’s law to obey a human order (cp. 1:5-8; 3:4-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":24910,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Medes, Media, Median*","title_en":"Medes, Media, Median*","content_ro":"<h3>MEDES, MEDIA, MEDIAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Indo-European-speaking people appearing in the highland area of the ancient Asian country called Media. They were closely related to the Persians, with whom they are often identified or confused by writers who referred to the people of the area by the almost generic term “Medes.” In fact, the Medes inhabited a defined area in the Zagros Mountains positioned between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (914.4 and 1,524 meters) above sea level in a mountainous region divided by valleys. The capital, Ecbatana (now Hamadan), was on the major trade route from Mesopotamia. The elevation provided a temperate summer climate that encouraged the use of Ecbatana as a summer retreat for Persian kings.<\/p>\n<p>As no texts are extant in the Median language recording the history and culture of the Medes, information must be obtained from references to them in contemporary writings of the Greeks, Neo-Babylonians, and Assyrians. As the Medes and Chaldeans were instrumental in bringing down the Assyrian Empire, it is understandable that they should figure prominently in the Neo-Babylonian texts. Valuable additional information is available from Herodotus, possibly from cuneiform sources.<\/p>\n<p>The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III recorded the activity of the Medes in the area around Ecbatana in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, but historians are uncertain exactly how long before that date they had migrated into the region.<\/p>\n<p>Shalmaneser organized a raid into the plains controlled by the Medes in order to steal herds of carefully bred horses, the reputation for whose excellence was already deservedly high. Over generations, Assyrian kings continued this type of raid, not only for the purpose of obtaining fresh supplies of horses but also to ensure the free passage of traders on this major route. During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Assyrian kings such as Adad-nirari (810–781 <span>BC<\/span>), Tiglath-pileser III (743 <span>BC<\/span>), and Sargon II (716 <span>BC<\/span>), all claim to have conquered Media. The OT records that the Israelites were transported there at the time of Sargon’s incursions (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Esar-haddon was king of Assyria (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>), he expected the Medians to acknowledge his overlordship and pay tribute according to their treaty, but taking advantage of the declining strength of Assyria, the Medians joined forces with the Scythians and Cimmerians in 631 <span>BC<\/span>. The ebbing strength of the Assyrians was further eroded under a series of attacks led by Phraortes culminating in the fall of Nineveh in 612 <span>BC<\/span> and of Haran in 610 <span>BC<\/span>. Under the leadership of Cyaxares of Media, who organized a strong, disciplined army, the Median forces and their allies, having gained control of the major cities, extended their sphere of influence to the northern part of Assyria, negotiating peace with Lydia in 585 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Elamites, also a people involved in the ebb and flow of the power struggle in the region over the centuries, came into the ascendency in 550 <span>BC<\/span> when Cyrus of Anshan overcame Astyages. Cyrus was of half-Persian, half-Median ancestry. Ecbatana, capital of Media, was captured, and the entire area was controlled by Elam. Cyrus took on the additional title “king of the Medes.” The laws and the heritage of the Medes were incorporated with those of the Persians (Dn 6:8, 15). Medes were entrusted with high office in the administration. The Medes and the Persians were referred to in almost synonymous terms (Est 1:19; Dn 8:20). They were also involved in the capture of Babylon (Is 13:17; Jer 51:11, 28; Dn 5:28). Being of Median heritage (Dn 9:1), Darius, son of Ahasuerus, was referred to as “the Mede” (Dn 11:1) from the time he took over as ruler of Babylon. His administration was not altogether peaceful, however, and restlessness led to outright rebellion both in his reign and during that of Darius II (409 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>A description of the sumptuous feasting and luxurious appointments of the court apartments are described in the book of Esther (Est 1:3-7). The Medians subsequently were subjected to the control of the Syrians (Seleucids) and the Parthians. In the NT there is a single combined reference to Parthians, Medes, and Elamites (Acts 2:9), but thereafter Media seems to have become only a geographical term, the people no longer appearing in history as a group in their own right.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MEDES, MEDIA, MEDIAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Indo-European-speaking people appearing in the highland area of the ancient Asian country called Media. They were closely related to the Persians, with whom they are often identified or confused by writers who referred to the people of the area by the almost generic term “Medes.” In fact, the Medes inhabited a defined area in the Zagros Mountains positioned between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (914.4 and 1,524 meters) above sea level in a mountainous region divided by valleys. The capital, Ecbatana (now Hamadan), was on the major trade route from Mesopotamia. The elevation provided a temperate summer climate that encouraged the use of Ecbatana as a summer retreat for Persian kings.<\/p>\n<p>As no texts are extant in the Median language recording the history and culture of the Medes, information must be obtained from references to them in contemporary writings of the Greeks, Neo-Babylonians, and Assyrians. As the Medes and Chaldeans were instrumental in bringing down the Assyrian Empire, it is understandable that they should figure prominently in the Neo-Babylonian texts. Valuable additional information is available from Herodotus, possibly from cuneiform sources.<\/p>\n<p>The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III recorded the activity of the Medes in the area around Ecbatana in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, but historians are uncertain exactly how long before that date they had migrated into the region.<\/p>\n<p>Shalmaneser organized a raid into the plains controlled by the Medes in order to steal herds of carefully bred horses, the reputation for whose excellence was already deservedly high. Over generations, Assyrian kings continued this type of raid, not only for the purpose of obtaining fresh supplies of horses but also to ensure the free passage of traders on this major route. During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, Assyrian kings such as Adad-nirari (810–781 <span>BC<\/span>), Tiglath-pileser III (743 <span>BC<\/span>), and Sargon II (716 <span>BC<\/span>), all claim to have conquered Media. The OT records that the Israelites were transported there at the time of Sargon’s incursions (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Esar-haddon was king of Assyria (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>), he expected the Medians to acknowledge his overlordship and pay tribute according to their treaty, but taking advantage of the declining strength of Assyria, the Medians joined forces with the Scythians and Cimmerians in 631 <span>BC<\/span>. The ebbing strength of the Assyrians was further eroded under a series of attacks led by Phraortes culminating in the fall of Nineveh in 612 <span>BC<\/span> and of Haran in 610 <span>BC<\/span>. Under the leadership of Cyaxares of Media, who organized a strong, disciplined army, the Median forces and their allies, having gained control of the major cities, extended their sphere of influence to the northern part of Assyria, negotiating peace with Lydia in 585 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Elamites, also a people involved in the ebb and flow of the power struggle in the region over the centuries, came into the ascendency in 550 <span>BC<\/span> when Cyrus of Anshan overcame Astyages. Cyrus was of half-Persian, half-Median ancestry. Ecbatana, capital of Media, was captured, and the entire area was controlled by Elam. Cyrus took on the additional title “king of the Medes.” The laws and the heritage of the Medes were incorporated with those of the Persians (Dn 6:8, 15). Medes were entrusted with high office in the administration. The Medes and the Persians were referred to in almost synonymous terms (Est 1:19; Dn 8:20). They were also involved in the capture of Babylon (Is 13:17; Jer 51:11, 28; Dn 5:28). Being of Median heritage (Dn 9:1), Darius, son of Ahasuerus, was referred to as “the Mede” (Dn 11:1) from the time he took over as ruler of Babylon. His administration was not altogether peaceful, however, and restlessness led to outright rebellion both in his reign and during that of Darius II (409 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>A description of the sumptuous feasting and luxurious appointments of the court apartments are described in the book of Esther (Est 1:3-7). The Medians subsequently were subjected to the control of the Syrians (Seleucids) and the Parthians. In the NT there is a single combined reference to Parthians, Medes, and Elamites (Acts 2:9), but thereafter Media seems to have become only a geographical term, the people no longer appearing in history as a group in their own right.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MEDES, MEDIA, MEDIAN* Indo-European-speaking people appearing in the highland area of the ancient Asian country called Media. They were closely related to the Persians, with whom they are often identified or confused by writers who referred to the people of the area by the almost generic term “Medes.” In fact, the Medes inhabited a defined area in the Zagros Mountains positioned between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (914.4 and 1,524 meters) above sea level in a mountainous region divided by valleys. T...","summary_en":"MEDES, MEDIA, MEDIAN* Indo-European-speaking people appearing in the highland area of the ancient Asian country called Media. They were closely related to the Persians, with whom they are often identified or confused by writers who referred to the people of the area by the almost generic term “Medes.” In fact, the Medes inhabited a defined area in the Zagros Mountains positioned between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (914.4 and 1,524 meters) above sea level in a mountainous region divided by valleys. T...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","summary_en":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","summary_en":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","summary_en":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136409,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked:<\/em> Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","summary_en":"6:8 cannot be changed . . . cannot be revoked: Cp. Esth 1:19. Human laws all pass away, but God’s law lasts forever (Pss 93:5; 119:152). This devotion to established laws was one of the special features of the Persian Empire. Eventually, the profusion of laws so swamped them in bureaucracy that they could not function efficiently.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":22244,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kneeling","title_en":"Kneeling","content_ro":"<h3>KNEELING<\/h3>\n<p>Position often denoting worship, respect, or submission. A strong knee symbolically implied a man with strength of faith and purpose, and thus bowing the knee indicated submission to a superior. The knee was bowed before a king, a ruler, a governor, or God. Genesis 41:43 describes the people who were kneeling before Pharaoh and Joseph. Kneeling in reverence before the Lord was common (Is 45:23; Rom 14:11; Phil 2:10). In a time of famine, when the Israelites turned away from the Lord, those who remained faithful were described as “all the knees that have not bowed to Baal” (1 Kgs 19:18, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Rom 11:4).<\/p>\n<p>As firm knees represented strength, so smiting those knees represented the destruction of power (Dt 28:35). Isaiah pleaded with the Lord for the strengthening of weak knees (Is 35:3). References to weak or feeble knees were generally used to show a lack of firmness of faith (Jb 4:4; Heb 12:12) but could sometimes refer to failing health (Ps 109:24). Ezekiel referred to those who had knees “as weak as water” (Ez 7:17; 21:7).<\/p>\n<p>Kneeling before the Lord was a posture representing worship (Ps 95:6) and also prayer (Dn 6:10). Christ himself knelt to pray in the garden of Gethsemane (Lk 22:41), and Peter, Paul, and Stephen all did the same (Acts 7:60; 9:40; 20:36; 21:5). Solomon knelt in prayer and supplication before the Lord (1 Kgs 8:54), and even on one occasion had a scaffold built so that he could climb up and be seen by the whole congregation of Israel kneeling before the Lord (2 Chr 6:13).<\/p>\n<p>Some knelt in penitence, as Ezra did at the evening sacrifice (Ezr 9:5) and as Peter did when begging the Lord’s forgiveness for his lack of faith and trust (Lk 5:8). Those who were beseeching the prophet Elijah knelt before him as God’s representative (2 Kgs 1:13), and many came kneeling and begging the Lord for healing (Mt 17:14; Mk 1:40). Daniel knelt in wonder and awe before an angel (Dn 10:10), and a sign of Belshazzar’s fear was that his “knees knocked together” (Dn 5:6). In the NT a regal and patient Christ is subjected to the taunting and mockery of the soldiers who knelt before him and sarcastically cried, “Hail, King of the Jews” (Mt 27:29; Mk 15:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KNEELING<\/h3>\n<p>Position often denoting worship, respect, or submission. A strong knee symbolically implied a man with strength of faith and purpose, and thus bowing the knee indicated submission to a superior. The knee was bowed before a king, a ruler, a governor, or God. Genesis 41:43 describes the people who were kneeling before Pharaoh and Joseph. Kneeling in reverence before the Lord was common (Is 45:23; Rom 14:11; Phil 2:10). In a time of famine, when the Israelites turned away from the Lord, those who remained faithful were described as “all the knees that have not bowed to Baal” (1 Kgs 19:18, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Rom 11:4).<\/p>\n<p>As firm knees represented strength, so smiting those knees represented the destruction of power (Dt 28:35). Isaiah pleaded with the Lord for the strengthening of weak knees (Is 35:3). References to weak or feeble knees were generally used to show a lack of firmness of faith (Jb 4:4; Heb 12:12) but could sometimes refer to failing health (Ps 109:24). Ezekiel referred to those who had knees “as weak as water” (Ez 7:17; 21:7).<\/p>\n<p>Kneeling before the Lord was a posture representing worship (Ps 95:6) and also prayer (Dn 6:10). Christ himself knelt to pray in the garden of Gethsemane (Lk 22:41), and Peter, Paul, and Stephen all did the same (Acts 7:60; 9:40; 20:36; 21:5). Solomon knelt in prayer and supplication before the Lord (1 Kgs 8:54), and even on one occasion had a scaffold built so that he could climb up and be seen by the whole congregation of Israel kneeling before the Lord (2 Chr 6:13).<\/p>\n<p>Some knelt in penitence, as Ezra did at the evening sacrifice (Ezr 9:5) and as Peter did when begging the Lord’s forgiveness for his lack of faith and trust (Lk 5:8). Those who were beseeching the prophet Elijah knelt before him as God’s representative (2 Kgs 1:13), and many came kneeling and begging the Lord for healing (Mt 17:14; Mk 1:40). Daniel knelt in wonder and awe before an angel (Dn 10:10), and a sign of Belshazzar’s fear was that his “knees knocked together” (Dn 5:6). In the NT a regal and patient Christ is subjected to the taunting and mockery of the soldiers who knelt before him and sarcastically cried, “Hail, King of the Jews” (Mt 27:29; Mk 15:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KNEELING Position often denoting worship, respect, or submission. A strong knee symbolically implied a man with strength of faith and purpose, and thus bowing the knee indicated submission to a superior. The knee was bowed before a king, a ruler, a governor, or God. Genesis 41:43 describes the people who were kneeling before Pharaoh and Joseph. Kneeling in reverence before the Lord was common (Is 45:23; Rom 14:11; Phil 2:10). In a time of famine, when the Israelites turned away from the Lord,...","summary_en":"KNEELING Position often denoting worship, respect, or submission. A strong knee symbolically implied a man with strength of faith and purpose, and thus bowing the knee indicated submission to a superior. The knee was bowed before a king, a ruler, a governor, or God. Genesis 41:43 describes the people who were kneeling before Pharaoh and Joseph. Kneeling in reverence before the Lord was common (Is 45:23; Rom 14:11; Phil 2:10). In a time of famine, when the Israelites turned away from the Lord,...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","summary_en":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","summary_en":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","summary_en":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136410,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10-11<\/strong> <em>as usual:<\/em> Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • <em>Jerusalem<\/em> was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","summary_en":"6:10-11 as usual: Daniel’s regular prayer time established him in the daily worship of God. • Jerusalem was God’s chosen city (1 Kgs 11:36). Though the Temple was gone, it was unthinkable to forget Jerusalem (Ps 137:5-6). Someday, the Temple would be rebuilt (Isa 2:2-4; 44:28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":53533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","summary_en":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","summary_en":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","summary_en":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136411,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • <em>deeply troubled:<\/em> Or <em>very angry<\/em> for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","summary_en":"6:14 The king had not thought through all the consequences of signing the law. • deeply troubled: Or very angry for being tricked. He did not want to execute his best servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":53534,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","summary_en":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","summary_en":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","summary_en":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136412,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","summary_en":"6:16 Caught in the officials’ trap, the king had to carry out the law, but he respected Daniel’s integrity in worshiping his God (cp. 3:15; 6:20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":41950,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69576,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97202,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124828,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Daniel","title_en":"Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Daniel<\/h3>\n<p>Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 <span>BC<\/span> (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his growing empire. Daniel and his friends were the brightest and healthiest of the students, so they assumed important positions in Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s court career lasted nearly seventy years (see Dan 1:21). He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and absolute fidelity to God. When Nebuchadnezzar had a troubling dream, God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king (Dan 2). Later, Daniel interpreted a second dream about the king’s pride (Dan 4). Daniel urged Nebuchadnezzar to repent, but he did not. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar became temporarily deranged (Dan 4:28-37).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel always treated the Babylonian king respectfully, and Nebuchadnezzar had high regard for Daniel, whose character and behavior led Nebuchadnezzar to worship the Lord (though not exclusively). Daniel’s faithfulness and prudence encourage later readers in similarly hostile cultures.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Belshazzar, vice-regent of Babylon, profaned the sacred vessels from the Jerusalem Temple during a banquet (539 <span>BC<\/span>). A disembodied hand suddenly wrote the words “<span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Mene<\/span>, <span>Tekel<\/span>, and <span>Parsin<\/span>” on the palace wall, which Daniel interpreted as forecasting Babylon’s imminent end. That same night, Belshazzar was killed by Persians who captured the capital (Dan 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede (539 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel became an administrator of the realm (Dan 6:2). Daniel’s capable management infuriated political enemies, who persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding worship of anyone but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. To preserve his religious integrity, Daniel violated the law, but he was miraculously unscathed by the lions. Thereafter he was restored to his office (Dan 6:17-28). Daniel’s later visions date from around this time (Dan 10:1, 4).<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s prophecies are difficult to understand in detail, but their message is clear: Evil forces are now in power, but God is in control and will save his people. Jesus and New Testament authors cited Daniel, often using his imagery when speaking of the end times (e.g., cp. Dan 7:1-9 and Rev 13:1-10; Dan 7:13 and Rev 1:7; Dan 9:27 and Matt 24:15). Daniel had no doubt that God Most High would be victorious.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezek 14:14, 20; 28:3; Dan 1:1–12:13; Matt 24:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","summary_en":"Daniel Daniel provides a stirring example of faith, wisdom, and endurance under difficulty and oppression. His life and prophecies affirm that God is in control and will have the final victory despite apparently dominant evil forces. Daniel was a young man of Judah’s royal family when the Babylonian army first attacked Jerusalem in 605 BC (Dan 1:3). Daniel was deported to Babylon with Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael. King Nebuchadnezzar trained these young men, among others, to serve in his gr...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8546,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Daniel (Person)","title_en":"Daniel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Kileab.<\/p>\n<li>2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended from Jewish nobility (Dn 1:3). If born during the time of King Josiah’s reforms (c. 621 <span>BC<\/span>), Daniel would have been about 16 when he and his three friends—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were deported from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar. They may have been hostages to assure the cooperation of the royal family in Judah.<\/li>\n<p>Daniel, renamed Belteshazzar (meaning “may Bel [god] protect his life”), was trained for court service. He quickly established a reputation for intelligence and for absolute fidelity to his God. After three years of instruction, he began a court career that lasted nearly 70 years (Dn 1:21). Daniel had hardly finished his training when he was called on to interpret one of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams, in which a great image collapsed and disintegrated when struck by a stone. God revealed its meaning to Daniel, who explained it to the king. In gratitude Nebuchadnezzar offered him the post of governor of Babylonia, but Daniel requested that the honor be conferred on his three companions in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s life, Daniel was able to interpret a second dream (Dn 4). That dream intimated the king’s impending insanity. Daniel urged the king to repent (4:27), but he did not, and subsequently for a period of time he became deranged.<\/p>\n<p>After the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 <span>BC<\/span>, Daniel dropped from public view and evidently occupied an inferior position in the royal court. Although he received visions (Dn 7–8) in the first and third years of the Babylonian regent Belshazzar’s reign (555 and 553 <span>BC<\/span>), it was not until 539 <span>BC<\/span> that Daniel made another public appearance. During a banquet hosted by Belshazzar, the king profaned the sacred vessels pillaged from the Jerusalem temple. A disembodied hand suddenly appeared and wrote on the palace wall the mysterious words, “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Parsin.” Summoned to explain the message, Daniel interpreted it as a forecast of the imminent end of the Babylonian kingdom. That same night Belshazzar was killed by the Persians, who attacked and successfully overtook the capital city (5:30).<\/p>\n<p>Under Darius the Mede, Daniel became one of three “presidents” (administrators) of the realm (6:2). Daniel’s rank, along with his capable and distinguished management, infuriated his political enemies. They persuaded Darius to pass a decree forbidding petition to any god or man but the king, under penalty of being cast into a lions’ den. Daniel’s religious integrity forced him to violate the law. Thrown to the lions, he remained miraculously unscathed. Vindicated, he was restored to office (vv 17-28).<\/p>\n<p>The latter part of the book of Daniel describes several visions he received of future events. The visions dealt with four beasts (ch 7), future kingdoms (ch 8), the coming of the Messiah (ch 9), and Syria and Egypt (chs 11–12). The prophet Ezekiel alluded to Daniel’s great wisdom (Ez 28:3) and ranked him in righteousness with Noah and Job (14:14, 20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel, Book of; Diaspora of the Jews; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","summary_en":"DANIEL (Person) 1. David’s second son, the first by his wife Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); also called Kileab (2 Sm 3:3). See also Kileab. 2. Priest, descendant of Ithamar. He signed Ezra’s covenant of faithfulness to God with Nehemiah and others after the exile (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6). 3. Jewish statesman and seer in the Babylonian court whose career is recounted in the book of Daniel. Daniel’s early life is cloaked in silence. Nothing is known of his parents or family, though he was probably descended f...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34225,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Seal","title_en":"Seal","content_ro":"<h3>SEAL<\/h3>\n<p>Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were little more than tiny clay spools scratched with twigs to produce simple designs or figures. Glyptic art (the technical name for engraving or carving of seals on gems) flourished in the ancient Near East from the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> to the end of the Persian period in the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofSeals\">Types of Seals<\/p>\n<h5>Stamp Seals<\/h5>\n<p>Seals were produced in many shapes and sizes, the earliest being the stamp seal, a flat engraved gem or bead that produced a copy of itself when pressed against soft clay. It was superseded about 3000 <span>BC<\/span> in Mesopotamia by the cylinder seal and began to be used again only at the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>; by Hellenistic times it had replaced the cylinder seal altogether.<\/p>\n<h5>Cylinder Seals<\/h5>\n<p>The cylinder seal first appeared in Mesopotamia before 3000 <span>BC<\/span> and became the most widely used kind of seal until the middle of the first millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Its use in Egypt is evidence of early Mesopotamian cultural influence upon Egypt; however, it was soon replaced there by the scarab (beetle-shaped) seal, which was better adapted for sealing papyrus documents. Symbols or designs were carved on the outside of the cylinder, which left their imprint when the seal was rolled over the wet clay. Some of the earliest symbols used were geometric designs or representations of some magical symbol. Later seals depicted everything from mythology (deities seated conversing with each other, receiving worshipers in audience, riding in a boat or chariot, or fighting an enemy) to scenes from everyday life (hunting, marrying, banqueting, feeding animals, fighting wild beasts, offering sacrifices to the deity, warring, leading prisoners away) and representations of animals, flowers, and birds. Writing (e.g., the owner’s name or a declaration of loyalty to a god or king) began to appear on seals in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the great number and variety of seals that have been found, they are invaluable for what they reveal about ancient peoples—how they dressed, their hairstyles, furniture, utensils, and religious beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Seals were so widely used and have been unearthed in such quantity in the ancient Near East that they can be dated within a century or two of their origin, though sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact period or country of origin. Herodotus observed that every Babylonian gentleman “carries a seal and a walking stick” (Book I, 195). The seal was suspended by a cord about the neck or the wrist or attached to some part of the owner’s clothing (cf. Gn 38:18; 41:42; Sg 8:6; Jer 22:24). Graves have been found with cylinders tied to the wrists of the skeletons.<\/p>\n<p>Another type of seal was the jar handle seal. Cloth was placed over the neck of a bottle, soft clay was smeared on top of the binding cord, and then the seal was pressed into the wet clay. The unbroken seal showed that the merchandise had not been opened before delivery. In Judea the seal was impressed on jar handles as evidence of ownership. Some jar handle stamps were probably trademarks of pottery factories; some bear private names (perhaps the owner of the factory). The so-called royal jar handle stamps contain either a four-winged or two-winged symbol and a short inscription consisting of two lines. The line above reads “belonging to the king,” and the lower line contains the name of a city, probably where the jar was made.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/p>\n<h5>Functional Uses<\/h5>\n<p>Since their first creation as amulets, seals continued to serve as signals of protection. An unbroken seal proved that the contents had not been tampered with, whether on a document, a granary door, or a wine jar. The lions’ den into which Daniel was cast was sealed with the king’s signet and those of his nobles (Dn 6:17). Jesus’ tomb was secured by sealing the stone (Mt 27:66). The seal also served as a mark of ownership or as a trademark (e.g., placed on pottery before firing). It was also used to validate documents (letters, bills of sale, government documents, etc.). Jezebel wrote letters in her husband’s name and sealed them with his seal, thus bringing about the death of Naboth (1 Kgs 21:8-13). Jeremiah sealed a deed of purchase when he bought a kinsman’s land (Jer 32:10-14). An edict with the Persian king’s seal could not be revoked (Est 8:8).<\/p>\n<h5>Symbolic Use<\/h5>\n<p>Symbolic use of the seal is found both in nonbiblical and biblical literature. A Babylonian prayer says, “Like a seal may my sins be torn away.” The OT says, “Seal the teaching among my disciples” (Is 8:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). Zerubbabel was told he would become God’s signet ring (Hg 2:23). The earth took shape like clay pressed by a signet ring (Jb 38:14).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used symbolically in the NT to designate God’s personal ownership. For example, the Scriptures say that God’s seal is on Jesus, his Son (Jn 3:33; 6:27). This means that Jesus bears God’s personal name; Jesus is God’s personal expression. The Scriptures also say that the Holy Spirit seals the believers (2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This means that the Spirit is God’s mark of ownership on the believers, and it means that the Spirit protects and preserves the believers throughout their lives.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Inscriptions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SEAL<\/h3>\n<p>Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were little more than tiny clay spools scratched with twigs to produce simple designs or figures. Glyptic art (the technical name for engraving or carving of seals on gems) flourished in the ancient Near East from the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span> to the end of the Persian period in the fourth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofSeals\">Types of Seals<\/p>\n<h5>Stamp Seals<\/h5>\n<p>Seals were produced in many shapes and sizes, the earliest being the stamp seal, a flat engraved gem or bead that produced a copy of itself when pressed against soft clay. It was superseded about 3000 <span>BC<\/span> in Mesopotamia by the cylinder seal and began to be used again only at the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>; by Hellenistic times it had replaced the cylinder seal altogether.<\/p>\n<h5>Cylinder Seals<\/h5>\n<p>The cylinder seal first appeared in Mesopotamia before 3000 <span>BC<\/span> and became the most widely used kind of seal until the middle of the first millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Its use in Egypt is evidence of early Mesopotamian cultural influence upon Egypt; however, it was soon replaced there by the scarab (beetle-shaped) seal, which was better adapted for sealing papyrus documents. Symbols or designs were carved on the outside of the cylinder, which left their imprint when the seal was rolled over the wet clay. Some of the earliest symbols used were geometric designs or representations of some magical symbol. Later seals depicted everything from mythology (deities seated conversing with each other, receiving worshipers in audience, riding in a boat or chariot, or fighting an enemy) to scenes from everyday life (hunting, marrying, banqueting, feeding animals, fighting wild beasts, offering sacrifices to the deity, warring, leading prisoners away) and representations of animals, flowers, and birds. Writing (e.g., the owner’s name or a declaration of loyalty to a god or king) began to appear on seals in the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the great number and variety of seals that have been found, they are invaluable for what they reveal about ancient peoples—how they dressed, their hairstyles, furniture, utensils, and religious beliefs.<\/p>\n<p>Seals were so widely used and have been unearthed in such quantity in the ancient Near East that they can be dated within a century or two of their origin, though sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact period or country of origin. Herodotus observed that every Babylonian gentleman “carries a seal and a walking stick” (Book I, 195). The seal was suspended by a cord about the neck or the wrist or attached to some part of the owner’s clothing (cf. Gn 38:18; 41:42; Sg 8:6; Jer 22:24). Graves have been found with cylinders tied to the wrists of the skeletons.<\/p>\n<p>Another type of seal was the jar handle seal. Cloth was placed over the neck of a bottle, soft clay was smeared on top of the binding cord, and then the seal was pressed into the wet clay. The unbroken seal showed that the merchandise had not been opened before delivery. In Judea the seal was impressed on jar handles as evidence of ownership. Some jar handle stamps were probably trademarks of pottery factories; some bear private names (perhaps the owner of the factory). The so-called royal jar handle stamps contain either a four-winged or two-winged symbol and a short inscription consisting of two lines. The line above reads “belonging to the king,” and the lower line contains the name of a city, probably where the jar was made.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/p>\n<h5>Functional Uses<\/h5>\n<p>Since their first creation as amulets, seals continued to serve as signals of protection. An unbroken seal proved that the contents had not been tampered with, whether on a document, a granary door, or a wine jar. The lions’ den into which Daniel was cast was sealed with the king’s signet and those of his nobles (Dn 6:17). Jesus’ tomb was secured by sealing the stone (Mt 27:66). The seal also served as a mark of ownership or as a trademark (e.g., placed on pottery before firing). It was also used to validate documents (letters, bills of sale, government documents, etc.). Jezebel wrote letters in her husband’s name and sealed them with his seal, thus bringing about the death of Naboth (1 Kgs 21:8-13). Jeremiah sealed a deed of purchase when he bought a kinsman’s land (Jer 32:10-14). An edict with the Persian king’s seal could not be revoked (Est 8:8).<\/p>\n<h5>Symbolic Use<\/h5>\n<p>Symbolic use of the seal is found both in nonbiblical and biblical literature. A Babylonian prayer says, “Like a seal may my sins be torn away.” The OT says, “Seal the teaching among my disciples” (Is 8:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). Zerubbabel was told he would become God’s signet ring (Hg 2:23). The earth took shape like clay pressed by a signet ring (Jb 38:14).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used symbolically in the NT to designate God’s personal ownership. For example, the Scriptures say that God’s seal is on Jesus, his Son (Jn 3:33; 6:27). This means that Jesus bears God’s personal name; Jesus is God’s personal expression. The Scriptures also say that the Holy Spirit seals the believers (2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This means that the Spirit is God’s mark of ownership on the believers, and it means that the Spirit protects and preserves the believers throughout their lives.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Archaeology and the Bible; Inscriptions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SEAL Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay. Origin The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were lit...","summary_en":"SEAL Small engraved object widely used in the ancient Near East to produce an image in soft clay. Origin The exact origin of seals cannot be determined. The first seal probably developed from the amulet, whose purpose was to give protection to its wearer or to ward off evil. At one time a seal was believed to have some kind of magical protective power that would bring a curse or harm to the unauthorized person who dared to break it to obtain the contents it protected. Primitive seals were lit...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","summary_en":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","summary_en":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","summary_en":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136413,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> <em>his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles:<\/em> The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","summary_en":"6:17 his own royal seal and the seals of his nobles: The multiple sealing of the lions’ den made a covert rescue impossible. Neither the king nor the officials could open the den without breaking the other seals and thus informing the other parties.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":35637,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sleep","title_en":"Sleep","content_ro":"<h3>SLEEP<\/h3>\n<p>Sleep is spoken of in three ways in the Bible: (a) to speak of natural sleep, (b) to refer to moral or spiritual inactivity, and (c) to refer to death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NaturalSleep\">Natural Sleep<\/p>\n<p>The sleep that the human body needs is seen as a precious gift of God (Pss 4:8; 127:2). Sleep may be withheld, as God chooses and to serve his purposes (Est 6:1; Dn 6:18). God may also, to fulfill his purposes, give people deep sleep (Gn 2:21; 15:12; 1 Sm 26:12), and during a person’s sleep, God may make his will known by a dream or vision (e.g., Gn 28:11-16; Jb 4:13-17; Mt 1:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>Several statements in the book of Proverbs rebuke the lack of discipline of life shown in the undue love of sleep. For example, one proverb says, “If you love sleep, you will end in poverty. Keep your eyes open, and there will be plenty to eat!” (Prv 20:13, <span>nlt<\/span>; see also 6:9-11; 10:5; 24:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MoralorSpiritualInactivity\">Moral or Spiritual Inactivity<\/p>\n<p>In a figurative way, sleep is used as a symbol of laziness, carelessness, or inactivity. Isaiah 56:10 speaks of those who failed in their responsibility as leaders of God’s people: “They love to lie there, love to sleep, to dream” (<span>tlb<\/span>). In the NT those who are the Lord’s servants are called to watch and to be sure that when their Master comes he will not find them sleeping (Mk 13:35-37; see also Mt 25:1-13; 26:40-46). Likewise, the challenge to maintain spiritual alertness and to refrain from sleep comes in a number of places in the epistles: “Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give you light” (Eph 5:14, <span>rsv<\/span>); “So be on your guard, not asleep like the others. Watch for his return and stay sober” (1 Thes 5:6, <span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Death\">Death<\/p>\n<p>Very frequently, the Bible speaks of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-14). In some of these references, it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in Daniel 12:2 it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead “rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>tlb<\/span>). This is made more specific in many passages in the NT. When, however, we consider the full teaching of the Bible on the meaning of death for the Christian, we need to give full weight to such passages as Luke 23:43, 2 Corinthians 5:8, and Philippians 1:23, and especially 1 Thessalonians 5:13-14. In the first of these Jesus says to the dying thief on the cross, “Today you will be with me in paradise,” and in the second Paul speaks of death for him as going to “be with Christ.”<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SLEEP<\/h3>\n<p>Sleep is spoken of in three ways in the Bible: (a) to speak of natural sleep, (b) to refer to moral or spiritual inactivity, and (c) to refer to death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NaturalSleep\">Natural Sleep<\/p>\n<p>The sleep that the human body needs is seen as a precious gift of God (Pss 4:8; 127:2). Sleep may be withheld, as God chooses and to serve his purposes (Est 6:1; Dn 6:18). God may also, to fulfill his purposes, give people deep sleep (Gn 2:21; 15:12; 1 Sm 26:12), and during a person’s sleep, God may make his will known by a dream or vision (e.g., Gn 28:11-16; Jb 4:13-17; Mt 1:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>Several statements in the book of Proverbs rebuke the lack of discipline of life shown in the undue love of sleep. For example, one proverb says, “If you love sleep, you will end in poverty. Keep your eyes open, and there will be plenty to eat!” (Prv 20:13, <span>nlt<\/span>; see also 6:9-11; 10:5; 24:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MoralorSpiritualInactivity\">Moral or Spiritual Inactivity<\/p>\n<p>In a figurative way, sleep is used as a symbol of laziness, carelessness, or inactivity. Isaiah 56:10 speaks of those who failed in their responsibility as leaders of God’s people: “They love to lie there, love to sleep, to dream” (<span>tlb<\/span>). In the NT those who are the Lord’s servants are called to watch and to be sure that when their Master comes he will not find them sleeping (Mk 13:35-37; see also Mt 25:1-13; 26:40-46). Likewise, the challenge to maintain spiritual alertness and to refrain from sleep comes in a number of places in the epistles: “Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give you light” (Eph 5:14, <span>rsv<\/span>); “So be on your guard, not asleep like the others. Watch for his return and stay sober” (1 Thes 5:6, <span>tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Death\">Death<\/p>\n<p>Very frequently, the Bible speaks of death as sleep. Commonly in the OT, when a person dies, he is said to go to sleep with his fathers (e.g., Dt 31:16; 2 Sm 7:12). Jesus spoke of death as sleep (Mt 9:24; Jn 11:11). So did the apostle Paul (1 Cor 11:30; 15:20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-14). In some of these references, it would seem that it is the temporary nature of death that is the reason why it is spoken of as sleep. Even in Daniel 12:2 it is said that death is a sleep, until the dead “rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>tlb<\/span>). This is made more specific in many passages in the NT. When, however, we consider the full teaching of the Bible on the meaning of death for the Christian, we need to give full weight to such passages as Luke 23:43, 2 Corinthians 5:8, and Philippians 1:23, and especially 1 Thessalonians 5:13-14. In the first of these Jesus says to the dying thief on the cross, “Today you will be with me in paradise,” and in the second Paul speaks of death for him as going to “be with Christ.”<\/p>","summary_ro":"SLEEP Sleep is spoken of in three ways in the Bible: (a) to speak of natural sleep, (b) to refer to moral or spiritual inactivity, and (c) to refer to death. Natural Sleep The sleep that the human body needs is seen as a precious gift of God (Pss 4:8; 127:2). Sleep may be withheld, as God chooses and to serve his purposes (Est 6:1; Dn 6:18). God may also, to fulfill his purposes, give people deep sleep (Gn 2:21; 15:12; 1 Sm 26:12), and during a person’s sleep, God may make his will known by a...","summary_en":"SLEEP Sleep is spoken of in three ways in the Bible: (a) to speak of natural sleep, (b) to refer to moral or spiritual inactivity, and (c) to refer to death. Natural Sleep The sleep that the human body needs is seen as a precious gift of God (Pss 4:8; 127:2). Sleep may be withheld, as God chooses and to serve his purposes (Est 6:1; Dn 6:18). God may also, to fulfill his purposes, give people deep sleep (Gn 2:21; 15:12; 1 Sm 26:12), and during a person’s sleep, God may make his will known by a...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","summary_en":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","summary_en":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","summary_en":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136414,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> The king <em>spent the night fasting<\/em> because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king <em>couldn’t sleep at all<\/em> because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","summary_en":"6:18 The king spent the night fasting because he mourned over what he had done and hoped that Daniel’s God would rescue him. The king couldn’t sleep at all because he knew that Daniel was an innocent and noble man.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":53537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","summary_en":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","summary_en":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108789,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","summary_en":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136415,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> <em>Very early:<\/em> Literally <em>at dawn<\/em>, the earliest possible hour.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","summary_en":"6:19 Very early: Literally at dawn, the earliest possible hour.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":53538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:20","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","summary_en":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81164,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:20","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","summary_en":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108790,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:20","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","summary_en":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136416,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:20","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:20<\/strong> <em>Was your God . . . able?<\/em> There was no question about whether Daniel had served God <em>faithfully<\/em><em>,<\/em> so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • <em>living God:<\/em> The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression <em>living God<\/em> is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","summary_en":"6:20 Was your God . . . able? There was no question about whether Daniel had served God faithfully, so if God didn’t rescue him it would have told the king that God was not able to do so. • living God: The king probably knew what Daniel’s God had done during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. The expression living God is particularly used in the Bible to contrast the Lord with lifeless idols (see, e.g., Deut 5:26; Josh 3:10; Isa 37:17-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":53539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","summary_en":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81165,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","summary_en":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108791,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","summary_en":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136417,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21-22<\/strong> <em>My God sent his angel:<\/em> The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","summary_en":"6:21-22 My God sent his angel: The law of the Medes and Persians proved impotent. God has the power to defend his faithful servant and his own reputation.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":1630,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Angel","title_en":"Angel","content_ro":"<h3>ANGEL<\/h3>\n<p>Messenger of God or supernatural being, either good or evil, with powers greater than humans possess.<\/p>\n<p>The first kind of angels mentioned in the Bible are cherubim (plural of “cherub,” a Hebrew word). They were celestial beings sent by God to guard the tree of life in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24). They were represented symbolically on the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:18-22), in the tabernacle (Ex 26:31) and temple (2 Chr 3:7), and seen by the prophet Ezekiel in a vision of the restored Jerusalem (Ez 41:18-20). Two angels, Gabriel and the chief, or archangel, Michael, are named in the Bible (Dn 8:16; 9:21; 10:13; Lk 1:19, 26; Jude 1:9; Rv 12:7-9).<\/p>\n\n<p>In the Bible, angels are spiritual beings who serve primarily as messengers. The English word “angel” comes directly from a Greek word for messenger. In Luke 9:52, Jesus sent “messengers” ahead of him. Usually the same word is translated “angel” and is understood to mean a spiritual messenger from God. In the OT also, one Hebrew word can refer either to a human messenger or to a spiritual being. It is not always immediately clear which is meant, especially since angels sometimes appeared in human form. In certain passages, “the angel of God” or a similar phrase may refer to God delivering his own message (see Gn 18:2-15).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appeared to many of God’s people in the Bible to announce good news (Jgs 13:3), warn of danger (Gn 19:15), guard from evil (Dn 3:28; 6:22), guide and protect (Ex 14:19), nourish (Gn 21:14-20; 1 Kgs 19:4-7), or instruct (Acts 7:38; Gal 3:19). When Christ came to earth as the Savior, angels heralded his birth (Lk 2:8-15), guided and warned his parents (Mt 2:13), strengthened him when he was tempted (Mt 4:11) and in his last distress (Lk 22:43-44 in some manuscripts), and observed his resurrection (Mt 28:1-6). Jesus spoke about the guardian angels of little children (Mt 18:10). Philip was guided by an angel (Acts 8:26). Apostles were rescued from prison by an angel (Acts 5:19; 12:7-11). In a frightening situation, the apostle Paul was encouraged by an angel (Acts 27:21-25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The physical appearance of angels in biblical encounters was often unusual enough to distinguish them from ordinary people. The angel who moved the stone from the entrance to Jesus’ tomb had an appearance like lightning and raiment white as snow (Mt 28:3). Many passages about angels are descriptions of dreams or visions. “Jacob’s ladder” with angels ascending and descending (Gn 28:12) is an example. In another dream an angel spoke to Jacob (Gn 31:11). An angel appeared to Cornelius in a vision (Acts 10:1-3). Major passages of this type include Isaiah 6 (the seraphim), much of the book of Ezekiel (the cherubim), and much of Daniel and Zechariah. In the NT, over a third of the references to angels are in the book of Revelation. In most cases there, the angelic beings are glorious or grotesque figures seen in visions and are not to be confused with human persons. The language describing such visions is appropriately mystical, or at least metaphorical and difficult to interpret.<\/p>\n<p>Angelology, or the doctrine of angels, is not a major theme in Christian theology in spite of the many references to angels in the Bible. Angels are included in descriptions of all that God created (Ps 148:2; Col 1:16). There are hints that they witnessed the creation of the world (Jb 38:7). No matter how close to God angels may be, they share with humankind the status of creatures. But as wholly spiritual creatures they are free from many human limitations, such as death (Lk 20:36). They do not marry (Mt 22:30), so they could be regarded as sexless. In all their appearances, angels in human form were taken to be men, never women or children. Their ability to communicate in human language and to affect human life in other ways is basic to their role in the Bible. Their power and awesome appearance (Mt 28:2-4) sometimes tempted people to fear or worship them, but the NT does not condone the worship of angels (Col 2:18; Rv 22:8-9). Though angels are stronger and wiser than human beings, their power and knowledge are also limited by God (Ps 103:20; Mt 24:36; 1 Pt 1:11-12; 2 Pt 2:11). <em>See<\/em> Cherub, Cherubim; Seraph, Seraphim; Demon; Demon-possession; Satan.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANGEL<\/h3>\n<p>Messenger of God or supernatural being, either good or evil, with powers greater than humans possess.<\/p>\n<p>The first kind of angels mentioned in the Bible are cherubim (plural of “cherub,” a Hebrew word). They were celestial beings sent by God to guard the tree of life in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24). They were represented symbolically on the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:18-22), in the tabernacle (Ex 26:31) and temple (2 Chr 3:7), and seen by the prophet Ezekiel in a vision of the restored Jerusalem (Ez 41:18-20). Two angels, Gabriel and the chief, or archangel, Michael, are named in the Bible (Dn 8:16; 9:21; 10:13; Lk 1:19, 26; Jude 1:9; Rv 12:7-9).<\/p>\n\n<p>In the Bible, angels are spiritual beings who serve primarily as messengers. The English word “angel” comes directly from a Greek word for messenger. In Luke 9:52, Jesus sent “messengers” ahead of him. Usually the same word is translated “angel” and is understood to mean a spiritual messenger from God. In the OT also, one Hebrew word can refer either to a human messenger or to a spiritual being. It is not always immediately clear which is meant, especially since angels sometimes appeared in human form. In certain passages, “the angel of God” or a similar phrase may refer to God delivering his own message (see Gn 18:2-15).<\/p>\n<p>Angels appeared to many of God’s people in the Bible to announce good news (Jgs 13:3), warn of danger (Gn 19:15), guard from evil (Dn 3:28; 6:22), guide and protect (Ex 14:19), nourish (Gn 21:14-20; 1 Kgs 19:4-7), or instruct (Acts 7:38; Gal 3:19). When Christ came to earth as the Savior, angels heralded his birth (Lk 2:8-15), guided and warned his parents (Mt 2:13), strengthened him when he was tempted (Mt 4:11) and in his last distress (Lk 22:43-44 in some manuscripts), and observed his resurrection (Mt 28:1-6). Jesus spoke about the guardian angels of little children (Mt 18:10). Philip was guided by an angel (Acts 8:26). Apostles were rescued from prison by an angel (Acts 5:19; 12:7-11). In a frightening situation, the apostle Paul was encouraged by an angel (Acts 27:21-25).<\/p>\n\n<p>The physical appearance of angels in biblical encounters was often unusual enough to distinguish them from ordinary people. The angel who moved the stone from the entrance to Jesus’ tomb had an appearance like lightning and raiment white as snow (Mt 28:3). Many passages about angels are descriptions of dreams or visions. “Jacob’s ladder” with angels ascending and descending (Gn 28:12) is an example. In another dream an angel spoke to Jacob (Gn 31:11). An angel appeared to Cornelius in a vision (Acts 10:1-3). Major passages of this type include Isaiah 6 (the seraphim), much of the book of Ezekiel (the cherubim), and much of Daniel and Zechariah. In the NT, over a third of the references to angels are in the book of Revelation. In most cases there, the angelic beings are glorious or grotesque figures seen in visions and are not to be confused with human persons. The language describing such visions is appropriately mystical, or at least metaphorical and difficult to interpret.<\/p>\n<p>Angelology, or the doctrine of angels, is not a major theme in Christian theology in spite of the many references to angels in the Bible. Angels are included in descriptions of all that God created (Ps 148:2; Col 1:16). There are hints that they witnessed the creation of the world (Jb 38:7). No matter how close to God angels may be, they share with humankind the status of creatures. But as wholly spiritual creatures they are free from many human limitations, such as death (Lk 20:36). They do not marry (Mt 22:30), so they could be regarded as sexless. In all their appearances, angels in human form were taken to be men, never women or children. Their ability to communicate in human language and to affect human life in other ways is basic to their role in the Bible. Their power and awesome appearance (Mt 28:2-4) sometimes tempted people to fear or worship them, but the NT does not condone the worship of angels (Col 2:18; Rv 22:8-9). Though angels are stronger and wiser than human beings, their power and knowledge are also limited by God (Ps 103:20; Mt 24:36; 1 Pt 1:11-12; 2 Pt 2:11). <em>See<\/em> Cherub, Cherubim; Seraph, Seraphim; Demon; Demon-possession; Satan.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANGEL Messenger of God or supernatural being, either good or evil, with powers greater than humans possess. The first kind of angels mentioned in the Bible are cherubim (plural of “cherub,” a Hebrew word). They were celestial beings sent by God to guard the tree of life in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24). They were represented symbolically on the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:18-22), in the tabernacle (Ex 26:31) and temple (2 Chr 3:7), and seen by the prophet Ezekiel in a vision of the restored Jer...","summary_en":"ANGEL Messenger of God or supernatural being, either good or evil, with powers greater than humans possess. The first kind of angels mentioned in the Bible are cherubim (plural of “cherub,” a Hebrew word). They were celestial beings sent by God to guard the tree of life in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:24). They were represented symbolically on the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:18-22), in the tabernacle (Ex 26:31) and temple (2 Chr 3:7), and seen by the prophet Ezekiel in a vision of the restored Jer...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":8590,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","summary_en":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81166,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","summary_en":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108792,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","summary_en":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136418,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:25","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:25-27<\/strong> <em>King Darius sent this message:<\/em> As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that <em>the God of Daniel<\/em> is the <em>living God<\/em> with real power and a kingdom that <em>will never be destroyed<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","summary_en":"6:25-27 King Darius sent this message: As Nebuchadnezzar had done previously (cp. 3:28-29; 4:34-37), the current ruler of the civilized world testified to all his subjects that the God of Daniel is the living God with real power and a kingdom that will never be destroyed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":31020,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Power","title_en":"Power","content_ro":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","summary_en":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","summary_en":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81167,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","summary_en":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108793,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","summary_en":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136419,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:27","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:27<\/strong> <em>He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel:<\/em> This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","summary_en":"6:27 He rescues and saves. . . . He has rescued Daniel: This proclamation moves from the general to the specific. Daniel was a specific example of God’s rescuing power. God continues to act on behalf of his people, just as he has always done.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":41767,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Cyrus II","title_en":"Cyrus II","content_ro":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","summary_en":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69393,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Cyrus II","title_en":"Cyrus II","content_ro":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","summary_en":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97019,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Cyrus II","title_en":"Cyrus II","content_ro":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","summary_en":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124645,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Cyrus II","title_en":"Cyrus II","content_ro":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Cyrus II<\/h3>\n<p>Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 <span>BC<\/span>), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 <span>BC<\/span> and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 <span>BC<\/span>, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brought Babylonia into his empire (see Dan 5:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>After conquering Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree that allowed the Jewish people to return home and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. The part of this decree dealing with the Jews has been recorded in 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 and Ezra 1:1-4. This practice is confirmed by the Cyrus Cylinder, a barrel that was discovered at Babylon in 1879–82, which describes Cyrus’s policy regarding conquered peoples.<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah named Cyrus as Judah’s future deliverer (Isa 44:28–45:13) and even called him the Lord’s anointed (Isa 45:1, Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiakh,<\/span> “messiah”). Israel regarded Cyrus as called and empowered by God to free them. Cyrus was not <em>the<\/em> Messiah, but what he did served as an example of what the Messiah, Jesus Christ, would later do in setting God’s people free from servitude.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-11; 3:7; 4:1-5; 5:6-17; 6:14-15; Isa 44:28–45:13; 48:14-16; Dan 6:28; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","summary_en":"Cyrus II Cyrus II, king of Persia (559–530 BC), founded the great Persian Empire. His father was king of Persia, a small nation that was subject to Media, and his mother was the daughter of the king of the Medes. Cyrus conquered the Medes in 549 BC and combined the two nations into one. He conquered Lydia in Asia Minor in 547 BC, then turned to the east and brought Parthia and part of India into the Persian Empire. Finally, on October 29, 539 BC, Cyrus conquered the city of Babylon and brough...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8568,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8614,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darius","title_en":"Darius","content_ro":"<h3>DARIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusI\">Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal family than Cyrus and Cambyses, and his authority was not accepted in all the provinces. After Darius quelled several revolts, however, his power was firmly established, and he turned his attention to expanding the empire. His military campaigns extended Persian borders to the Danube River in the west and to the Indus River in the east, making him ruler of the largest empire the world had known. Greco-Persian conflict, which continued until Alexander the Great conquered the empire in 330 <span>BC<\/span>, began when Darius launched two invasions of Greece after conquering Thrace and Macedonia. The first expedition was destroyed by a storm in the Aegean Sea; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the famous battle of Marathon in 490 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>An able administrator, Darius did much to promote trade and commerce. He instituted a uniform system of weights and measures. During his reign, a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea was completed, and a sea route from the Indus River to Egypt was explored.<\/p>\n<p>During Darius’s reign, Persian architecture developed a style that continued until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius built at Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa, his capital. A great royal road was constructed from Susa to the Lydian capital of Sardis. His greatest architectural accomplishment was the founding of Persepolis, a new royal city to replace the emperor’s residence at Pasargadae. Darius also allowed temples to be built in Egypt and in Jerusalem, continuing Cyrus’s policy of respecting the religious customs of his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>Darius I is the Darius, king of Persia, mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah. Ezra 5–6 record that Zerubbabel and Jeshua, with the help of Haggai and Zechariah, finished rebuilding the temple during Darius’s reign while Tattenai was governor of the province “Beyond the River” (Syria-Palestine). Zerubbabel and Jeshua had returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus II about 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2). They completed the temple in the sixth year of Darius (6:15). That must have been the sixth year of Darius I (516 <span>BC<\/span>), since the sixth year of Darius II would certainly be too late. That identification was confirmed by discovery of a Babylonian document, dated June 5, 502 <span>BC<\/span>, which refers to Tattenai as “the governor of Beyond the River.”<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 of Ezra three Persian rulers are mentioned: Darius (vv 5, 24); Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I, v 6); and Artaxerxes (probably Artaxerxes I, vv 7-23). The chapter is a brief record of resistance to Jewish efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and the temple. Verse 24 states that work on the temple stopped until “the second year of the reign of Darius,” yet the temple was completed in the sixth year of Darius I. Obviously, work on the temple could not have stopped in the second year of Artaxerxes’ son Darius II (421 <span>BC<\/span>) if it had already been finished in 515 <span>BC<\/span>. Therefore, Ezra 4:24 should be understood not as a chronological continuation of the first 23 verses but as an introduction to the next two chapters, which discuss the building of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusII\">Darius II (423–404 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Ochus (his real name) and Darius Nothus (“Darius the bastard”), Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I by a Babylonian concubine. Before he became emperor, Ochus was a satrap (governor) of Hyrcania, a region on the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. In 423 <span>BC<\/span> his half brother, Sogdianus (or Secydianus), killed Xerxes II. Ochus then seized the throne from Sogdianus, whom he executed, and adopted the name Darius II. His reign was plagued with revolution and corruption. His own full brother, Arsites, revolted soon after Darius seized the throne, and Darius had him executed.<\/p>\n<p>After an alliance with Sparta was formed against Athens, Persia joined the Peloponnesian War. Several successful military campaigns succeeded in recovering the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor and breaking Athenian power in the Aegean area. Darius II died in Babylon in 404 <span>BC<\/span>, the year the Peloponnesian War ended.<\/p>\n<p>The Darius mentioned only once in the book of Nehemiah probably is Darius II. The passage states that Jewish priests were recorded “until the reign of Darius the Persian” (Neh 12:22b); descendants of Levi were recorded “until the days of Johanan son of Eliashib” (Neh 12:23). An Aramaic document found in Elephantine, Egypt, refers to Johanan the high priest in Jerusalem. The document was written in 407 <span>BC<\/span>, thus placing Johanan in the reign of Darius II.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariustheMede\">Darius the Mede<\/p>\n<p>Unknown in historical documents of the period of the Babylonian and Persian empires, this biblical Darius has been identified with several known figures. The most important efforts have identified Darius the Mede as another name for Cyrus II (“Cyrus the Persian,” Dn 6:28); for Cambyses II, Cyrus’s son; or for Gubaru, who was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River during the reigns of Cyrus II and Cambyses II.<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Daniel, “Darius the Mede received the kingdom” when Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was slain (Dn 5:30-31). Darius was about 62 years old (v 31) and was “the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede” (9:1). Daniel never suggested that Darius was king of Media or of the whole Persian Empire, only of the Chaldean (Babylonian) kingdom. The Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and Syro-Palestine (Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine). In the Persian Empire, that huge area became known as the province of Babylon (Mesopotamia) and Beyond the River (Syro-Palestine). Daniel also recorded that Darius appointed governors in the kingdom. By the third year of Cyrus the Persian (536 <span>BC<\/span>), the first year of Darius the Mede had already passed (Dn 10:1–11:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Nabonidus’s Chronicle and the Persian Verse Account of Nabonidus (two cuneiform documents from Nabonidus’s reign), Nabonidus was in Tema until Cyrus’s invasion of Babylonia. While he was away, he “entrusted the kingship” to his son Belshazzar. On October 12, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon fell to Ugbaru, general of Cyrus’s army. Cyrus entered Babylon on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, and appointed a person named Gubaru governor of Babylon. Gubaru then appointed other governors under him. General Ugbaru died on November 6, 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly there is no place for Darius the Mede between the reigns of Nabonidus\/Belshazzar and Cyrus II. Thus Darius the Mede must be Cyrus, a subordinate of Cyrus, or Cambyses, crown prince under Cyrus. But Cyrus II is mentioned as a separate person (Dn 6:28; 10:1–11:1), and it seems unlikely that the author would name the same figure both “Cyrus the Persian” and “Darius the Mede.” Cambyses II could not have been 62 years old; also, since he was not made king of Babylon until he became king of the empire in 529 <span>BC<\/span>, Cambyses’ first year could not precede Cyrus’s third year (536 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Darius the Mede was thus probably a subordinate of Cyrus who was made ruler of “the realm of the Chaldeans” after Belshazzar and who could have been considered a king by his subjects. Accordingly, the reign of Darius (Dn 6:28) should be understood as simultaneous with that of Cyrus, not as a preceding reign. Thus, Gubaru was made governor of Babylon immediately following the reign of Belshazzar, and he appointed governors, as did Darius the Mede. There is no record of Gubaru’s age, nationality, or ancestry. He may well have been a 62-year-old Mede whose father was named Ahasuerus. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther and of Ezra 4:6 should be identified with a later king, probably Xerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>Many Babylonian texts record that Gubaru was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River for about 14 years (539–525 <span>BC<\/span>). The documents attribute much power to him. His name is a final warning to officials who might disobey the laws. In documents that mention Cyrus II or Cambyses II, crimes in Babylon are stated to be sins against Gubaru, not against Cyrus or Cambyses. The province of Babylon and Beyond the River was the richest and most populous in the Persian Empire, encompassing many nations and languages. For a powerful governor of such a region to be called “king” by his subjects seems only natural.<\/p>\n<p>The case for Gubaru is admittedly circumstantial, but it remains the best solution to the problem. Until further evidence comes to light, it is safe to assume that Darius the Mede, “king over the realm of the Chaldeans,” was actually Gubaru, the known governor of that realm.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medes, Media, Median; Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARIUS<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusI\">Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal family than Cyrus and Cambyses, and his authority was not accepted in all the provinces. After Darius quelled several revolts, however, his power was firmly established, and he turned his attention to expanding the empire. His military campaigns extended Persian borders to the Danube River in the west and to the Indus River in the east, making him ruler of the largest empire the world had known. Greco-Persian conflict, which continued until Alexander the Great conquered the empire in 330 <span>BC<\/span>, began when Darius launched two invasions of Greece after conquering Thrace and Macedonia. The first expedition was destroyed by a storm in the Aegean Sea; the second was defeated by the Athenians in the famous battle of Marathon in 490 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>An able administrator, Darius did much to promote trade and commerce. He instituted a uniform system of weights and measures. During his reign, a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea was completed, and a sea route from the Indus River to Egypt was explored.<\/p>\n<p>During Darius’s reign, Persian architecture developed a style that continued until the end of the Achaemenid dynasty. Darius built at Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa, his capital. A great royal road was constructed from Susa to the Lydian capital of Sardis. His greatest architectural accomplishment was the founding of Persepolis, a new royal city to replace the emperor’s residence at Pasargadae. Darius also allowed temples to be built in Egypt and in Jerusalem, continuing Cyrus’s policy of respecting the religious customs of his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>Darius I is the Darius, king of Persia, mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah. Ezra 5–6 record that Zerubbabel and Jeshua, with the help of Haggai and Zechariah, finished rebuilding the temple during Darius’s reign while Tattenai was governor of the province “Beyond the River” (Syria-Palestine). Zerubbabel and Jeshua had returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus II about 538 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 2:2). They completed the temple in the sixth year of Darius (6:15). That must have been the sixth year of Darius I (516 <span>BC<\/span>), since the sixth year of Darius II would certainly be too late. That identification was confirmed by discovery of a Babylonian document, dated June 5, 502 <span>BC<\/span>, which refers to Tattenai as “the governor of Beyond the River.”<\/p>\n<p>In chapter 4 of Ezra three Persian rulers are mentioned: Darius (vv 5, 24); Ahasuerus (probably Xerxes I, v 6); and Artaxerxes (probably Artaxerxes I, vv 7-23). The chapter is a brief record of resistance to Jewish efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and the temple. Verse 24 states that work on the temple stopped until “the second year of the reign of Darius,” yet the temple was completed in the sixth year of Darius I. Obviously, work on the temple could not have stopped in the second year of Artaxerxes’ son Darius II (421 <span>BC<\/span>) if it had already been finished in 515 <span>BC<\/span>. Therefore, Ezra 4:24 should be understood not as a chronological continuation of the first 23 verses but as an introduction to the next two chapters, which discuss the building of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariusII\">Darius II (423–404 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Also known as Ochus (his real name) and Darius Nothus (“Darius the bastard”), Darius II was the son of Artaxerxes I by a Babylonian concubine. Before he became emperor, Ochus was a satrap (governor) of Hyrcania, a region on the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. In 423 <span>BC<\/span> his half brother, Sogdianus (or Secydianus), killed Xerxes II. Ochus then seized the throne from Sogdianus, whom he executed, and adopted the name Darius II. His reign was plagued with revolution and corruption. His own full brother, Arsites, revolted soon after Darius seized the throne, and Darius had him executed.<\/p>\n<p>After an alliance with Sparta was formed against Athens, Persia joined the Peloponnesian War. Several successful military campaigns succeeded in recovering the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor and breaking Athenian power in the Aegean area. Darius II died in Babylon in 404 <span>BC<\/span>, the year the Peloponnesian War ended.<\/p>\n<p>The Darius mentioned only once in the book of Nehemiah probably is Darius II. The passage states that Jewish priests were recorded “until the reign of Darius the Persian” (Neh 12:22b); descendants of Levi were recorded “until the days of Johanan son of Eliashib” (Neh 12:23). An Aramaic document found in Elephantine, Egypt, refers to Johanan the high priest in Jerusalem. The document was written in 407 <span>BC<\/span>, thus placing Johanan in the reign of Darius II.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DariustheMede\">Darius the Mede<\/p>\n<p>Unknown in historical documents of the period of the Babylonian and Persian empires, this biblical Darius has been identified with several known figures. The most important efforts have identified Darius the Mede as another name for Cyrus II (“Cyrus the Persian,” Dn 6:28); for Cambyses II, Cyrus’s son; or for Gubaru, who was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River during the reigns of Cyrus II and Cambyses II.<\/p>\n<p>According to the book of Daniel, “Darius the Mede received the kingdom” when Belshazzar, king of Babylon, was slain (Dn 5:30-31). Darius was about 62 years old (v 31) and was “the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede” (9:1). Daniel never suggested that Darius was king of Media or of the whole Persian Empire, only of the Chaldean (Babylonian) kingdom. The Babylonian Empire included Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria) and Syro-Palestine (Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine). In the Persian Empire, that huge area became known as the province of Babylon (Mesopotamia) and Beyond the River (Syro-Palestine). Daniel also recorded that Darius appointed governors in the kingdom. By the third year of Cyrus the Persian (536 <span>BC<\/span>), the first year of Darius the Mede had already passed (Dn 10:1–11:1).<\/p>\n<p>According to Nabonidus’s Chronicle and the Persian Verse Account of Nabonidus (two cuneiform documents from Nabonidus’s reign), Nabonidus was in Tema until Cyrus’s invasion of Babylonia. While he was away, he “entrusted the kingship” to his son Belshazzar. On October 12, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, Babylon fell to Ugbaru, general of Cyrus’s army. Cyrus entered Babylon on October 29, 539 <span>BC<\/span>, and appointed a person named Gubaru governor of Babylon. Gubaru then appointed other governors under him. General Ugbaru died on November 6, 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly there is no place for Darius the Mede between the reigns of Nabonidus\/Belshazzar and Cyrus II. Thus Darius the Mede must be Cyrus, a subordinate of Cyrus, or Cambyses, crown prince under Cyrus. But Cyrus II is mentioned as a separate person (Dn 6:28; 10:1–11:1), and it seems unlikely that the author would name the same figure both “Cyrus the Persian” and “Darius the Mede.” Cambyses II could not have been 62 years old; also, since he was not made king of Babylon until he became king of the empire in 529 <span>BC<\/span>, Cambyses’ first year could not precede Cyrus’s third year (536 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Darius the Mede was thus probably a subordinate of Cyrus who was made ruler of “the realm of the Chaldeans” after Belshazzar and who could have been considered a king by his subjects. Accordingly, the reign of Darius (Dn 6:28) should be understood as simultaneous with that of Cyrus, not as a preceding reign. Thus, Gubaru was made governor of Babylon immediately following the reign of Belshazzar, and he appointed governors, as did Darius the Mede. There is no record of Gubaru’s age, nationality, or ancestry. He may well have been a 62-year-old Mede whose father was named Ahasuerus. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther and of Ezra 4:6 should be identified with a later king, probably Xerxes I.<\/p>\n<p>Many Babylonian texts record that Gubaru was governor of Babylon and the province Beyond the River for about 14 years (539–525 <span>BC<\/span>). The documents attribute much power to him. His name is a final warning to officials who might disobey the laws. In documents that mention Cyrus II or Cambyses II, crimes in Babylon are stated to be sins against Gubaru, not against Cyrus or Cambyses. The province of Babylon and Beyond the River was the richest and most populous in the Persian Empire, encompassing many nations and languages. For a powerful governor of such a region to be called “king” by his subjects seems only natural.<\/p>\n<p>The case for Gubaru is admittedly circumstantial, but it remains the best solution to the problem. Until further evidence comes to light, it is safe to assume that Darius the Mede, “king over the realm of the Chaldeans,” was actually Gubaru, the known governor of that realm.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medes, Media, Median; Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARIUS Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1). Darius I (521–486 BC) Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal...","summary_en":"DARIUS Name of three emperors in the Persian dynasty of the legendary King Achaemenes. A Darius appears in the biblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah as a Persian king, and in the book of Daniel as a Mede who became king over the Chaldeans (Dn 9:1). Darius I (521–486 BC) Also known as Darius Hystaspes and Darius the Great, Darius I seized the throne of the Persian Empire after the death of Cambyses II. Although he was an Achaemenid, he was from a different branch of the royal...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":53542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","summary_en":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81168,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","summary_en":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":108794,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","summary_en":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":136420,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Daniel 6:28","title_en":"Study Note: Daniel 6:28","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:28<\/strong> <em>the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian:<\/em> Or <em>the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian.<\/em> Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","summary_en":"6:28 the reign of Darius and the reign of Cyrus the Persian: Or the reign of Darius, that is, the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such usage of “and” is common in Aramaic; many believe that Cyrus and Darius were one man (see study note on 5:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Daniel 6
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Daniel 6
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