Deuteronom 23
1 Cel scopit sau famenul să nu intre în adunarea Domnului.
2 Cel născut din curvie să nu intre în adunarea Domnului, nici chiar al zecilea neam al lui să nu intre în adunarea Domnului.
3 Amonitul şi Moabitul să nu intre în adunarea Domnului, nici chiar al zecilea neam, pe vecie,
4 pentru că nu v-au ieşit înainte cu pâne şi apă, pe drum, la ieşirea voastră din Egipt, şi pentru că au adus, pe preţ de argint, împotriva ta pe Balaam, fiul lui Beor, din Petor din Mesopotamia, ca să te blesteme.
5 Dar Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, n-a voit să asculte pe Balaam; şi Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, a schimbat blestemul acela în binecuvântare, pentru că tu eşti iubit de Domnul, Dumnezeul tău.
6 Să nu-ţi pese nici de propăşirea lor, nici de bună starea lor, toată viaţa ta, pe vecie.
7 Să nu urăşti pe Edomit, căci este fratele tău; să nu urăşti pe Egiptean, căci ai fost străin în ţara lui:
8 fiii cari li se vor naşte, în al treilea neam, să intre în adunarea Domnului.
9 Când vei ieşi cu oastea împotriva vrăjmaşilor tăi, fereşte-te de orice lucru rău.
10 Dacă va fi la tine cineva care să nu fie curat, în urma vreunei întâmplări din timpul nopţii, să iasă din tabără, şi să nu intre în tabără;
11 spre seară, să se scalde în apă, şi după asfinţitul soarelui va putea să se întoarcă în tabără.
12 Să ai un loc afară din tabără, şi acolo să ieşi afară.
13 Între uneltele tale să ai o lopată, cu care să sapi şi să-ţi acoperi murdăriile ieşite din tine, când vei ieşi afară.
14 Căci Domnul Dumnezeul tău, merge în milocul taberei tale, ca să te ocrotească şi să-ţi dea în mână pe vrăjmaşii tăi dinaintea ta; tabăra ta va trebui deci să fie sfântă, pentruca Domnul să nu vadă la tine nimic necurat, şi să nu Se abată dela tine.
15 Să nu dai înapoi stăpânului său pe un rob care va fugi la tine dupăce l-a părăsit.
16 Să rămână la tine, în mijlocul tău, în locul pe care-l va alege el, într-una din cetăţile tale, unde îi va plăcea: să nu-l asupreşti.
17 Să nu fie nicio curvă din fetele lui Israel, şi să nu fie niciun sodomit din fiii lui Israel.
18 Să n-aduci în casa Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, cîştigul unei curve, nici preţul unui câne, ca împlinire a unei juruinţe oarecare; căci şi unul şi altul sânt o urâciune înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului tău.
19 Să nu ceri nicio dobândă dela fratele tău: nici pentru argint, nici pentru merinde, pentru nimic care se împrumută cu dobândă.
20 Dela străin vei putea să iei dobândă, dar dela fratele tău să nu iei, pentruca Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, să te binecuvinteze în tot ce vei face în ţara pe care o vei lua în stăpânire.
21 Dacă faci o juruinţă Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, să nu pregeţi s-o împlineşti; căci Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, îţi va cere socoteala, şi te vei face vinovat de un păcat.
22 22. Dacă te fereşti să faci o juruinţă, nu faci un păcat.
23 Dar să păzeşti şi să împlineşti ce-ţi va ieşi de pe buze, şi anume juruinţele pe cari le vei face de bună voie Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, şi pe cari le vei rosti cu gura ta.
24 Dacă intri în via aproapelui tău, vei putea să mănânci struguri, după plac, până te vei sătura; dar în vas să nu iei.
25 Dacă intri în holdele aproapelui tău, vei putea să culegi spice cu mâna, dar secerea în holdele aproapelui tău, să n-o pui.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":11284,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eunuch","title_en":"Eunuch","content_ro":"<h3>EUNUCH<\/h3>\n<p>Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, <span>neb<\/span>). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, <span>neb<\/span>; 1 Chr 28:1, <span>neb<\/span>), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8).<\/p>\n<p>The Ethiopian eunuch of Acts 8:27-39 was probably minister of the treasury and has been credited with founding Christianity in Ethiopia.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus mentioned three classes of eunuchs (Mt 19:12), including those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom. This is generally understood in a metaphorical sense of voluntarily forgoing marriage in order to serve the kingdom (e.g., John the Baptist, Jesus, and the apostle Paul).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EUNUCH<\/h3>\n<p>Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, <span>neb<\/span>). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, <span>neb<\/span>; 1 Chr 28:1, <span>neb<\/span>), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8).<\/p>\n<p>The Ethiopian eunuch of Acts 8:27-39 was probably minister of the treasury and has been credited with founding Christianity in Ethiopia.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus mentioned three classes of eunuchs (Mt 19:12), including those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom. This is generally understood in a metaphorical sense of voluntarily forgoing marriage in order to serve the kingdom (e.g., John the Baptist, Jesus, and the apostle Paul).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EUNUCH Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, neb). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, neb; 1 Chr 28:1, neb), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8). ...","summary_en":"EUNUCH Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, neb). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, neb; 1 Chr 28:1, neb), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8). ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13398,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Genealogy","title_en":"Genealogy","content_ro":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENEALOGY<\/h3>\n<p>Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to his “father,” Sesostris III, who lived some 1,200 years before him. Greeks and Romans also kept genealogical records. However, the biblical genealogies, especially those in Genesis and 1 Chronicles 1–9, are unique in the literature of the ancient Near East. Only at the beginning of the Islamic age are such broad genealogical records found. Even today among tribal Semites, such as Arab nomads, there is an intense interest in genealogy, and it is not unusual for an Arab to be able to recite accurately the names of his ancestors for 10 or 15 generations back, covering a period of several hundred years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TermsUsed\">Terms Used<\/p>\n<p>The word “genealogy” occurs only once as a noun in the Hebrew OT (Neh 7:5), where it refers to a register of those who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel at the end of the exile. The verbal form of the same word is found a total of 20 times in 1—2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The terms “generations” and “book of the generations,” used in Genesis and elsewhere in the OT, convey the same idea. The equivalent NT terms are found in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 (“genealogies”) and Matthew 1:1, which refers to the “book of the genealogy” of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeofGenealogicalRecords\">Purpose of Genealogical Records<\/p>\n<p>The keeping of genealogical records in ancient Israel was an important activity and served a number of useful purposes. God’s promise of a land to Abraham and his descendants made such records necessary to establish and preserve the allotment of the land; a genealogical record served as evidence of a legitimate title to the ancestral property. Genealogies were essential for the preservation of the exclusive priesthood that had been established by the Mosaic law. In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important reasons for keeping genealogical records was to establish and maintain the right of royal succession in Judah through the family of David. The belief that the Messiah would come from the Davidic house made such records even more important.<\/p>\n<p>Other purposes served by these family records included the imposition of military duty according to families (Nm 1:2-3). Position in camp and on the march from Egypt was determined by tribes and families (2:2, 17; 10:11-28). Also, God’s blessings were passed from one member of the family to his descendants (Gn 27). The stress placed on the purity of the congregation (Dt 7:1-4; 23:1-8) required complete family records, particularly in the postexilic period. With the insistence of Ezra and Nehemiah upon racial purity, and with the purging of foreign elements from among the people (Ezr 2:59-63; 10:9-44; Neh 13:23-28), written evidence of purity of descent became essential; interest in the compilation of genealogies became intense after the exile.<\/p>\n<p>Lineage was ordinarily traced through the male members of the family, with females being mentioned only rarely (e.g., Gn 11:29, Sarah and Milcah; 22:23, Rebekah; and Nm 26:33–27:11, where the property inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad was involved). Matthew mentions three women: Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth; and in the second group alludes to Bathsheba (see discussion below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrincipalGenealogicalListsintheBible\">Principal Genealogical Lists in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>The principal sources of genealogical material in the OT are found in Genesis, Numbers, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 1—2 Chronicles (which contain the greatest amount of genealogical material in the Bible), Ezra, and Nehemiah. The genealogies of Jesus Christ in Matthew 1 and Luke 3 are the only NT records. Together they contain a genealogical record from Adam to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Grouped together by historical periods, the following are the principal genealogical lists found in the Bible:<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Flood<\/h5>\n<p>Three lists are from this period. The first, found in Genesis 4:17-22, traces the descendants of Cain through seven generations and explains the hereditary origin of certain occupations and crafts. The second, Genesis 4:25-26, begins the account of the descendants of Seth, the posterity of Adam whose faithfulness to God is contrasted with the ungodly posterity of Cain. The third list, Genesis 5:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:1-4), traces the descendants of Adam through Seth down to Noah and his sons at the time of the Flood.<\/p>\n<h5>From Noah to Abraham<\/h5>\n<p>Genesis 10:1-32 (cf. 1 Chr 1:4-23), frequently called the “table of nations,” contains a list of the nations descended from the sons of Noah (Shem, Ham, and Japheth). Genesis 11:10-26 (cf. 1 Chr 1:24-27) traces the descendants of Shem to the time of Abraham, and Genesis 11:27-30 (see also Gn 22:20-24) lists the descendants of Nahor, Abraham’s brother.<\/p>\n<h5>From Abraham to the Descent into Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The descendants of Abraham by Hagar, Sarah, and Keturah are found in Genesis 16:15, 21:1-3, and 25:1-4 (introducing the Arabs as descendants of Abraham; cf. 1 Chr 1:28-34). Genesis 19:37-38 links the Moabites and Ammonites to Abraham through his nephew Lot. A very important genealogical list during this period is that of the descendants of Jacob, giving the account of the parentage, birth, and naming of the founders of the 12 tribes of Israel (Gn 29:31–30:24; 35:16-26). Esau is acknowledged as the ancestor of the Edomites; his Edomite descendants are traced through his three wives (Gn 26:34; 36:1-43; 1 Chr 1:35-54). The list of Jacob’s family at the time he entered Egypt, numbering 70, is found in Genesis 46:1-27 (cf. Ex 6:14-16; Nm 26:1-51; 1 Chr 2–8). A partial list of the heads of the fathers’ houses of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is found in Exodus 6:14-25; the chief purpose of this genealogy is to establish Aaron and Moses as members of Levi’s tribe.<\/p>\n<h5>From the Exodus to the Conquest of Canaan<\/h5>\n<p>While the tribes were still in the desert after leaving Egypt, a census was taken to determine the total number of Israelites (Nm 1:4-54; 2:2-33). During this same period, a genealogy of the family of Aaron was compiled, and a separate census was taken of the Levites (3:1-39). A list of the 12 spies who searched out the land and the tribes they represented is given in Numbers 13:4-16; the most important names on this list are Caleb and Joshua. Near the end of the wilderness wanderings, another census of the people was ordered; the total number was approximately the same as that of the first census almost 40 years earlier (26:4-51, 57-62). As the tribes neared the Promised Land, a list was prepared of the tribal representatives who would take part in the division of the land (34:16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Period of the Kings<\/h5>\n<p>During the entire period of the monarchy, over 400 years, the only genealogical records of any consequence are those that pertain to David. His descendants are traced through 20 rulers who sat upon the throne of Judah until the nation fell to the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (1—2 Kgs; cf. 1 Chr 11:1—2 Chr 36:21). A list of David’s children is found in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:14-16 (cf. 1 Chr 3:1-9; 14:4-7). His mighty men, an elite group of soldiers, are named in 2 Samuel 23:8-39 (cf. 1 Chr 11:10-47). His recruits at Ziklag are recorded in 1 Chronicles 12:1-22. Those who were his musicians and doorkeepers when the ark was brought to Jerusalem are named in 1 Chronicles 15:1-24 (cf. 1 Chr 16:5-6, 37-43). David’s political and religious organization of the kingdom—including the Levites, priests, singers, porters and other administrative officials, and military officers—is found in 1 Chronicles 23–27. In spite of the literary activity associated with the reign of Solomon, the only genealogical record preserved from this period is that of Solomon’s princes and 12 officers (1 Kgs 4:1-19). The genealogy of one prophet is traced back four generations (Zep 1:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Postexilic Period<\/h5>\n<p>During the postexilic period, the keeping of genealogical records probably received its greatest impetus through the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, primarily because of their insistence upon racial purity and the purging of foreign elements from the community. A list of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel is found in Ezra 2:1-70 (cf. Neh 7:6-73, where the same list is found). A list of those who returned with Ezra is included in 8:1-20. Ezra’s own genealogy is also recorded (Ezr 7:5). There is a list of the Jews who married foreign women that included priests, Levites, singers, porters, and other Israelites (Ezr 10:18-44). Nehemiah 8:4-7 names the Levites and others who assisted Ezra when he read the law publicly. Nehemiah also contains a list of those who participated in the ceremony of sealing the covenant (Neh 10:1-27) and a list of those who lived in Jerusalem and other cities (11:3-36). His interest in the priesthood is reflected in the list of priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel (12:1-9), of the high priests from Jeshua to Jaddua (vv 10-11), of the heads of the priestly families (vv 12-21), of the Levites and porters who served under the high priest (vv 22-26), and of the princes and priests who were present at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (vv 31-42).<\/p>\n<p>The final genealogical record that must be mentioned is the genealogy from Adam to Saul (1 Chr 1–8), the longest section of genealogical material in the Bible. It is properly included with the genealogies compiled during the postexilic period, as the unknown chronicler (some think he was Ezra) prepared this list around 400 <span>BC<\/span> from extant records and documents available to him. His purpose seems to have been to conserve the purity of blood in the restored nation and to insist that the nation’s well-being depended on its faithfulness to God’s law.<\/p>\n<h5>The New Testament Period<\/h5>\n<p>The only genealogies of consequence in the NT are those concerning Jesus Christ in Matthew 1:1-17 and Luke 3:23-38. <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","summary_en":"GENEALOGY Record or study of descent involving a tracing backward or forward of the ancestry of a nation, tribe, family, or individual. The Hebrews were not the only people in the ancient world to take an interest in maintaining genealogical records. The Sumerian king list of the third millennium BC contains records of the early rulers of Mesopotamia. In Babylonian records the word “son” was frequently used in the sense of “descendant of.” King Tirhakah of Egypt (c. 685 BC) referred to his “f...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45126,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","summary_en":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72752,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","summary_en":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100378,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","summary_en":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128004,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:1<\/strong> Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","summary_en":"23:1 Emasculation, associated with certain pagan rituals and customs, was abhorrent to the Lord (cp. Isa 56:3-4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":9299,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demon-Possession","title_en":"Demon-Possession","content_ro":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMON-POSSESSION<\/h3>\n<p>Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimonizomai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.”<\/p>\n<p>Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly differentiates an attack from without and control from within. Although a non-Christian may be said to be “possessed” by a demon, the Christian cannot be so possessed, for he belongs to Christ and his human spirit has been sealed by the Holy Spirit (Eph 1:13). Demonic spirits somehow know and acknowledge this seal.<\/p>\n<p>Demons can also enter the bodies of animals, as in the case of the swine in Mark 5:13. Demons are associated with books of magic (Acts 19:19), idols (1 Cor 10:19-21), and fetishes. Demons often cause illness or physical disability; Luke 13:11 tells of a woman who had “been crippled by an evil spirit” for 18 years but was delivered and healed by Jesus. Since evil spirits often attack the mind and the emotions, many symptoms of mental illness may be attributed to their activity. The boy whom Jesus delivered just after the Transfiguration exhibited symptoms of epilepsy. Paranoia may be the work of a spirit of fear. Some individuals suffering from schizophrenia (split or multiple personality) may in reality be demonized by a number of spirits. It is possible for a person to have many demons. Jesus cast seven of them out of Mary Magdalene (Lk 8:2). The spirit in the Gerasene demoniac gave his name as Legion, “for we are many” (Mk 5:9; Lk 8:30). In the time of Augustus a Roman legion consisted of 6,000 foot soldiers, usually accompanied by an equal number of auxiliary troops.<\/p>\n<p>Demonization occurs in various ways. Some people are demonized by a hereditary curse, which may continue to the third or fourth generation (Ex 20:5). The curse against illegitimacy was particularly strong, for the bastard could not enter the congregation of Israel until the tenth generation (Dt 23:2). Curses may also be placed upon someone by spells, incantations, or similar practices such as voodoo or other forms of witchcraft. Galatians 3:13 speaks of redemption from the curse of the law through Christ’s having “become a curse” for us. Usually believers are immune from curses made against them, unless they have given grounds to the devil (Eph 4:27). Such grounds may be provided through drugs, illicit sex, the occult, or any other avenue forbidden in the Bible. Involvement with tarot cards, horoscopes, or any other form of fortune-telling may give demons opportunity to enter. Such contacts may seem innocuous, but Satan utilizes the smallest foothold to gain advantage over people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Manifestation\">Manifestation<\/p>\n<p>Often demons prefer to hide rather than to make their presence known, for then they can exercise control without hindrance. When they do manifest themselves, often when challenged, all sorts of strange and frightening things may occur. They possess supernatural powers (cf. Rv 16:14), which they exhibit outright or through their victims. The Gerasene demoniac had superhuman physical strength, so that he could not be bound with fetters or chains (Mk 5:4-5); he lived in tombs and went about night and day screaming and injuring himself with stones.<\/p>\n<p>The spirit in the demonized boy in Mark 9 rendered him dumb and deaf, threw him on the ground, and caused him to roll about and to foam at the mouth (9:18-20). The demon caused him to grind his teeth and become rigid; he had tried to kill the boy by throwing him into the fire and into the water on various occasions (vv 18-22). Before leaving at the command of Jesus, the demon cried out (cf. Mk 1:26), convulsed the boy terribly, and left him lying like a corpse. Jesus took him by the hand and raised him up (9:27). Similar manifestations take place today.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Exorcism\">Exorcism<\/p>\n<p>Casting out demons, or exorcism, was a regular and frequent part of the ministry of Jesus, and he taught and commanded his followers to do the same. This command has never been abrogated, and the ministry of deliverance should be even more important today, when the forces of evil are so rampant. The following principles are derived from the practice of Jesus, the Scriptures, and personal observation and involvement.<\/p>\n<p>1. Jesus spoke to demons and commanded them to come out (Mk 1:25; 9:25). He cast them out “with a word” (Mt 8:16). Jesus gave his followers authority to use his name in casting them out and used this as a sign of the believer (Mk 16:17). His name is not a magical formula, and its use depends on the relationship between the Lord and the person using his name, as the sons of Sceva found out to their dismay (Acts 19:11-18).<\/p>\n<li>2. Jesus cast out demons by the Spirit of God (Mt 12:28). God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power to heal all who were oppressed by the devil (Lk 4:18-19; Acts 10:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. The Lord gave clear teaching about “the binding of the strong man” in deliverance (Mt 12:29; Mk 3:27) and about binding and loosing (Mt 18:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Prayer is an important weapon in spiritual warfare. When the disciples asked (Mk 9:28) why they could not cast out a demon, Jesus replied that this kind comes out only with prayer.<\/li>\n<li>5. Revelation 12:11 testifies to the power of “the blood of the Lamb” in overcoming Satan. Demons do not like to hear of the blood of Jesus and often become agitated at the mention of it.<\/li>\n<li>6. God has equipped the believer with armor for defense in spiritual battle (Eph 6:10-17).<\/li>\n<li>7. The Lord answered Satan with correctly applied texts from the Bible. We have been given the sword of the Spirit, the Word of God (Eph 6:17; Heb 4:12), as a means of defense and for attack against the enemy.<\/li>\n<li>8. We must come against the hosts of hell from our position in the heavenly places (Eph 2:6), not from our limited earthly station.<\/li>\n<li>9. We must recognize that the ultimate victory has already been won by Jesus, who came to destroy the works of the devil (1 Jn 3:8) and to destroy him who has the power of death (Heb 2:14-16). When Jesus cried out on the cross, “It is finished,” he meant that the redemptive work was done; when he arose from the dead, he demonstrated his power over death. We win only as we enter into his victory.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","summary_en":"DEMON-POSSESSION Demonic occupation of a human being. The term “possession” is misleading and is not the best translation for the Greek word daimonizomai, which literally means to be “demonized” and can often best be translated as “to have a demon.” The noun form is “demoniac.” Demons can enter the body of a person (Lk 8:30; 22:3), in order to control the individual’s thoughts and actions. Sometimes a distinction is made between demonic oppression and demonic possession; this supposedly diffe...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":40592,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Lot","title_en":"Lot","content_ro":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","summary_en":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41061,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68218,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Lot","title_en":"Lot","content_ro":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","summary_en":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68687,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95844,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Lot","title_en":"Lot","content_ro":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","summary_en":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96313,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123470,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Lot","title_en":"Lot","content_ro":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Lot<\/h3>\n<p>Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Gen 13:10), and eventually he took up residence in Sodom. Lot’s increasing involvement with the completely corrupt cities of the plain compromised him.<\/p>\n<p>While Lot lived in Sodom, four Mesopotamian kings defeated the kings of five towns in the area; in the subsequent plundering, they carried off Lot, his family, and his possessions (Gen 14:1-12). When word of this reached Abraham, he launched a rearguard action against the invaders and recovered the prisoners and property (14:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the wickedness of Sodom and the neighboring city of Gomorrah, God decided to destroy these towns. He sent two angelic visitors to Lot in Sodom to encourage his departure from the doomed city (Gen 19:1-15). The city’s depravity became even more evident in an attempted homosexual attack on the visitors. Lot’s willingness to sacrifice his daughters, along with his reluctance to leave Sodom, shows how corrupt and compromised he had become. No one but his immediate family accompanied him, and his wife was destroyed when she turned back in disobedience. Soon after the destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters, despairing of having no husbands, got Lot drunk enough to have sexual relations with them. Their two sons, Moab and Ben-ammi, were ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (Gen 19:30-38), two nations that became inveterate enemies of Israel (see Deut 23:3-6). Despite Lot’s waywardness, Peter declares that Lot was a “righteous man who was tormented in his soul by the wickedness he saw and heard day after day” (see 2 Pet 2:6-9). This analysis of Lot may stem from Jewish interpretive tradition, as it is difficult to see in the Genesis account.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 11:27, 31; 12:4-5; 13:1-14; 14:12-16; 19:1-38; Deut 2:9, 17-19; Ps 83:4-8; Luke 17:28-33; 2 Pet 2:6-9<\/p>","summary_ro":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","summary_en":"Lot Lot was Abraham’s nephew and the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites. Like Abraham, Lot was born in Ur and accompanied Terah to Haran (Gen 11:27-32). After Terah’s death, he joined Abraham in journeying to Canaan and Egypt. When Lot and Abraham returned from Egypt to Canaan, their flocks and herds grew too numerous for them to live together, so Abraham gave Lot his choice of land on which to settle. Lot chose the fertile plain of the Jordan that was like “the garden of the Lord” (Gen 1...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123939,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":1347,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ammonites Ammon","title_en":"Ammonites Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMMON, AMMONITES<\/h3>\n<p>A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the Ammonites and Israelites. The name occurred frequently in the ancient Near East from the middle of the second millennium on. One form was found in Assyrian inscriptions; other forms are seen in Ugaritic texts of the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>, in the Mari texts, in the Amarna tablets, and in the Alalakh tablets.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites originated in the southern Transjordan region about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Though these people were of mixed ancestry, the languages they spoke were closely related to Hebrew. Ammonite was written in the old Canaanite-Phoenician script, which could probably be read and understood by Israelites. Ammonites intermarried with Hebrews (1 Kgs 14:21, 31; 2 Chr 12:13), and their personal names reflected early Arabic influences.<\/p>\n<p>In language, ethnic background, and physical characteristics the Ammonites were difficult to distinguish from Amorites and were probably closely related. Both may have entered the land at about the same time, for when Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan, both the Ammonite kingdom and the Amorite kingdom of Heshbon were already well established.<\/p>\n<p>The OT states that the territory of Ammon was once occupied by a race of giants called Rephaim or Zamzummim, about whom almost nothing is known (Dt 2:20-21; “Zuzim,” Gn 14:5). The Genesis Apocryphon found among the Dead Sea Scrolls mentions them as one of the people defeated by the alliance of four kings (Gn 14:1, 5). The expedition of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam (Gn 14), broke the power of those giants and probably made the occupation of the land by Esau, Ammon, and Moab much easier. King Og was “of the remnant of the Rephaim” known to the Ammonites (Dt 3:11). His bed was evidently an object of veneration because of its unusual size.<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites arrived at Kadesh, they encountered the well-organized kingdom of Edom but were refused permission to pass through Edomite territory (Nm 20:14-21). They journeyed northward to Ammonite country, which was then occupied by the Amorite king Sihon. He also refused them permission to pass through his land, but the Israelites defeated him in battle and occupied his country (Nm 21:21-24). They were instructed by God through Moses not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Dt 2:19, 37).<\/p>\n<p>Continuing northward, the Israelites defeated King Og of Bashan (Dt 3:1-11), then went down to the Jordan Valley, where they camped on the plains of Moab. There Balak, king of Moab, hired a soothsayer, Balaam, to pronounce a curse on the Israelites, but Balaam pronounced a blessing each time instead (Nm 22–24). For supporting the Moabites in their actions, the Ammonites were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Dt 23:3; Neh 13:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh were attracted to the fertile Transjordan region that had belonged to the Amorites and Bashan and decided to settle there on the Ammonite frontier (Nm 32; Dt 3:16; Jos 13:8-32). Subsequently they built an altar at the Jordan River, which the other tribes at first interpreted as an act of rebellion in that they appeared to be establishing a rival place of worship (Jos 22:10-34).<\/p>\n<p>Before the Israelite conquest of Canaan, the Ammonites evidently had not attained the same level of political organization and settled life as the neighboring Moabites and Edomites. Even as late as the seventh century <span>BC<\/span> the nation was essentially nomadic. Shortly after Israel settled in Canaan, the Ammonites allied with the Moabites and Amalekites when King Eglon of Moab tried to regain former Moabite territory at the north end of the Dead Sea (Jgs 3:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> the Israelites, then securely established in the land of Canaan, angered God by their worship of the deities of the Syrians, Sidonians, Moabites, Ammonites, and Philistines (Jgs 10:6). The Ammonites, in their first recorded political expansion, launched an attack against Israel and were able to establish themselves in Gilead (Jgs 10:7-8). They then crossed the Jordan and attacked the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Ephraim (Jgs 10:9). In desperation the elders of Gilead turned for help to Jephthah, a social outcast but an able military leader (Jgs 11:1-11). He defeated the Ammonites so decisively that it was unnecessary for him to wage further campaigns against Ammonite settlements west of the Jordan (Jgs 11:12-33).<\/p>\n<p>Near the end of the 11th century an Ammonite king named Nahash came to power, determined to reestablish Ammonite dominion over Israelite settlements in Transjordan. He launched an aggressive military campaign around 1020 <span>BC<\/span> that took him as far north as Jabesh-gilead. The inhabitants of the town were willing to surrender to him but delayed their surrender to appeal for help from Saul, the recently consecrated Israelite king. Saul quickly organized an army and decisively defeated the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-11). The victory ensured freedom from Ammonite domination in the Jordan Valley for several centuries, although later in his reign Saul was forced to fight further battles with the enemies of Israel, including Ammonites (1 Sm 14:47-48).<\/p>\n<p>When David became king, he took silver and gold from the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, either as spoils or as tribute (2 Sm 8:11-12; 1 Chr 18:11). Soon thereafter, David sent Joab at the head of a strong army to devastate the Ammonite countryside and besiege the capital city of Rabbah (2 Sm 11:1; 1 Chr 20:2). The siege lasted many months, but Joab weakened the city and David then completed its capture (2 Sm 12:26-29). In a ceremony of capitulation the Ammonite king’s massive golden crown was placed on David’s head (2 Sm 12:30; 1 Chr 20:1). The conquered city was plundered, and its inhabitants were enslaved. Other Ammonite cities were taken, and the nation was added to the growing number of vassal states of Israel (2 Sm 12:31; 1 Chr 20:3). David appointed a governor over the Ammonites from the Ammonite royal family. Shobi, another son of Nahash (and therefore Hanun’s brother), became ruler of the Ammonites and aided David during his flight from Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 17:27). One of David’s best warriors was an Ammonite (2 Sm 23:37).<\/p>\n<p>Ammonite relations with Israel remained generally peaceful during the reign of Solomon, David’s successor, with the Ammonites undoubtedly sharing in the prosperity and wealth of that period. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom split apart under Rehoboam and was further weakened by a campaign of Shishak, king of Egypt, that swept through Palestine and also through Ammonite territory. Taking advantage of the situation, the Ammonites declared their independence from Israel and Judah. The Ammonites joined the Moabites and Meunites to make war against King Jehoshaphat of Judah (reigning 871–848 <span>BC<\/span>). In fear, Jehoshaphat sought help from God in prayer (2 Chr 20:1-12). The Ammonites and their allies began fighting among themselves and destroyed each other, leaving behind great spoils for Jehoshaphat and his people—which took three days to be carried away (2 Chr 20:22-25). Eventually the Ammonites recovered, so that by the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Ammon had again become completely independent and was the dominant state of south Transjordan. Ammonite independence was short, however, for in 599 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the Babylonian Chronicle, Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar led his troops into Syria and began raiding southern Palestine. In 593 <span>BC<\/span>, the Ammonites met in Jerusalem with King Zedekiah of Judah and representatives from Edom, Moab, Tyre, and Sidon in a conspiracy to rebel against Babylon (Jer 27:1-3). The prophet Jeremiah warned them that God would cause their plan to fail (Jer 27:4-22). Nebuchadnezzar sent an army to crush the rebellion and attacked Jerusalem, which he destroyed after a lengthy and bitter siege (586 <span>BC<\/span>), deporting many Jews to Babylonia. Ammon was not immediately invaded, however, and many Judeans sought refuge there (Jer 40:11), including a man named Ishmael (Jer 40:13-16). Ishmael plotted with Baalis, king of Ammon, to assassinate Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor over Judea, now reduced to a province of Babylonia. After carrying out the assassination, Ishmael escaped to Ammon (Jer 41:1-15). Nebuchadnezzar then sent troops that sacked Rabbah and took captive many of the Ammonites. Though the city was not destroyed, the destruction of the countryside was thorough. In the third century <span>BC<\/span>, Arab invaders poured in and destroyed the remaining organized political structure, thus marking the end of Ammon as a semi-independent state.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","summary_en":"AMMON, AMMONITES A Semitic people who occupied a fertile area northeast of Moab in Transjordan between the Arnon and Jabbok Rivers and extending eastward to the Syrian Desert. The chief city was Rabbah (Rabbath-ammon), modern Amman, capital of Jordan. The Ammonites traced their ancestry to the younger daughter of Lot (Gn 19:38). Their name in Hebrew originally meant “son of my paternal clan,” preserving the remembrance of an actual clan and personal name, and suggesting a kinship between the ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26164,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45127,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:3","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","summary_en":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72753,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:3","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","summary_en":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100379,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:3","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","summary_en":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128005,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:3","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:3<\/strong> <em>No Ammonite or Moabite:<\/em> These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for <em>ten generations<\/em> means an indefinitely long period of time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","summary_en":"23:3 No Ammonite or Moabite: These nations were Lot’s descendants by his incestuous daughters (see study notes on 2:9, 19). In addition, they had forbidden Israel access to their lands during their desert wanderings (23:4). • Exclusion for ten generations means an indefinitely long period of time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62313,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64449,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89939,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92075,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117565,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119701,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145191,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147327,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Messages against the Nations","title_en":"Messages against the Nations","content_ro":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Messages against the Nations<\/h3>\n<p>Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did?<\/p>\n<p>It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins with God’s own household (1 Pet 4:17), it certainly does not end there. God will judge all, both inside and outside Israel, who rebel against him and his reign. All must come to acknowledge the Lord as the one true and sovereign God.<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were inclined to trust some of these nations (such as Egypt) to rescue them from foreign oppressors—not realizing that God was using other nations to bring judgment upon his people. The prophets reminded the people that no nation on earth can be trusted in place of God. In the end, all nations will bow before him.<\/p>\n<p>The messages against the foreign nations also reminded the covenant community that in spite of God’s judgment on them because of their sin, they were still his precious people. The primary accusation against these foreign nations was that they had persecuted and insulted God’s chosen people and had thereby affronted God. The negative side of God’s covenant with Abraham was still in force: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3).<\/p>\n<p>God’s consistent purpose in history is to bring glory to himself. By exiling his sinful people and by judging their arrogant oppressors, God displayed his power and holiness. Yet, in spite of the Exile, there was still hope for the positive side of the covenant to be fulfilled: “All the families on earth will be blessed through you” (Gen 12:3; see also Rom 11:1-27). God’s purposes for his people were not exhausted; he would ultimately bring glory to himself by bringing them back from the distant lands to which they had been scattered.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 12:3; Deut 23:3-6; Isa 13:1–23:18; Jer 25:29; 46:1–51:64; Ezek 9:6; 25:1–32:32; 36:23; 39:7; Dan 4:17; Amos 1:1–2:3; 3:2; Obad 1:1-16; John 15:18-24; Acts 3:25-26; Rom 2:9-10; 11:1-27; Eph 1:3-14; 1 Pet 4:17; Rev 18:1-24<\/p>","summary_ro":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","summary_en":"Messages against the Nations Why would Israel’s prophets address discourses to nations who in all likelihood would never hear the messages uttered against them? Why were the prophets concerned about what these nations thought and did? It was because the real audience was the people of God. These messages reminded God’s people that God does not operate on a double standard, judging the sins of his own people while the nations around them were free to act as they wished. Though judgment begins ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":41034,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68660,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96286,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123912,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Balaam<\/h3>\n<p>Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say what God told him to say, and only to frustrate Balak’s purposes (Deut 23:4-5). On the road, Balaam’s donkey stopped and refused to move because the angel of the Lord was blocking the way. The donkey could see the angel, but Balaam was blind and foolish. Still, Balaam was smart enough not to curse the Israelites when God told him to bless them, and to Balak’s great frustration, that was all Balaam could do.<\/p>\n<p>Recently, an inscription was found that mentions Balaam son of Beor, a diviner who had visions at night (cp. Num 22:9-12, 20). The inscription was written on a plaster wall at Deir ‘Alla, eight miles east of the Jordan River, not far north of where the Hebrews were camped at the time of the Balaam incident. This nonbiblical text, dated 800–750 <span>BC<\/span>, identifies Balaam as a “seer of the gods” and reports that the gods, whose names in the inscription are similar to <em>Shaddai<\/em> (“Almighty”; cp. Num 24:4, 16), delivered a message to Balaam and announced judgment upon the world (cp. Num 24:15-25). The inscription provides rare extrabiblical evidence about a Bible character.<\/p>\n<p>While Balaam’s character and motives appear somewhat mixed in Numbers 22–24, chapter 25 describes how the men of Israel sinned by sleeping with Moabite women and worshiping their gods, which made God angry with his people. While Balaam is not mentioned here, Numbers 31:16 names him as the originator of this plot. After his visions were finished, Balaam apparently remained in Moab and kept working the angles until he found a way to damage Israel and get the money. The Israelites killed him a short time later (Num 31:8). Balaam became known as a magician with bad motives (see Deut 23:4-5; Josh 13:22), a false teacher who was only interested in pay (see Neh 13:2; 2 Pet 2:15; Jude 1:11), and someone who led Israel into idolatry and immorality (Num 31:16; see Rev 2:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 22:1–25:18; 31:8, 16; Josh 13:22; 2 Pet 2:15-16; Jude 1:11; Rev 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","summary_en":"Balaam Balaam was a diviner—a person who read signs and omens to determine the future and performed rituals to change future events (see study note on Num 22:5-6; cp. Josh 13:22). He was a diviner for hire, so when Balak, king of Moab, wanted to hire him to curse Israel, he was eager to get started. Even when God told him not to go, he hoped God would change his mind because he was very interested in the money (2 Pet 2:15). Finally, God allowed Balaam to go, but only if Balaam agreed to say w...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2519,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aram-Naharaim","title_en":"Aram-Naharaim","content_ro":"<h3>ARAM-NAHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synonym of Aram-naharaim). Aram-naharaim was the home of Balaam, the pagan prophet (Dt 23:4). One oppressor of Israel during the period of the judges was Cushan-rishathaim, king of Aram-naharaim (Jgs 3:8-11). Later, in King David’s wars with Ammon, he had to confront mercenary charioteers hired from the Aramean centers of Aram-naharaim, Aram-maacah, and Zobah (1 Chr 19:6; cf. Ps 60 title). <em>See<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARAM-NAHARAIM<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synonym of Aram-naharaim). Aram-naharaim was the home of Balaam, the pagan prophet (Dt 23:4). One oppressor of Israel during the period of the judges was Cushan-rishathaim, king of Aram-naharaim (Jgs 3:8-11). Later, in King David’s wars with Ammon, he had to confront mercenary charioteers hired from the Aramean centers of Aram-naharaim, Aram-maacah, and Zobah (1 Chr 19:6; cf. Ps 60 title). <em>See<\/em> Syria, Syrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARAM-NAHARAIM Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, rsv). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synon...","summary_en":"ARAM-NAHARAIM Hebrew word meaning “Aram of the two rivers”; it refers to the area bounded by the upper Euphrates and the Habur Rivers. It is sometimes translated “Mesopotamia” (Dt 23:4, rsv). The major city of that area was Haran, where Terah and Abram stopped and where Terah died (Gn 11:31-32). A servant of Abraham (Abram) returned to the same region to seek a wife for Abraham’s son Isaac (Gn 24:1-10). Isaac’s son Jacob also returned to Haran to seek a wife (Gn 28:1-5; Paddan-aram is a synon...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21172,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of Jude","title_en":"Letter of Jude","content_ro":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","summary_en":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25342,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mesopotamia","title_en":"Mesopotamia","content_ro":"<h3>MESOPOTAMIA<\/h3>\n<p>Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered here. The Garden of Eden was situated in this area, for two of the rivers of Genesis 2:10-14 are identified as the Euphrates and the Tigris.<\/p>\n<p>The prehistoric cultures of Mesopotamia are unknown. The historical periods are labeled by the names of various cities that dominated them, such as Ur and Isin-Larsa, or by the names of dynasties established in those places, for example, Ur III.<\/p>\n\n<p>The southernmost part of Mesopotamia is known as Sumer and was populated by the Sumerians, who had a distinctive culture and a non-Semitic language, which was written in cuneiform script, as were most of the other languages of Mesopotamia. Farther north was the district called Akkad, which was also named Agade and had a Semitic population. Still farther north, along the Tigris, was the land that became Assyria, while to the far west was Syria, or Aram, and in between was Mitanni (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>). As portions of Mesopotamia slipped from hand to hand, various sections became parts of different empires, such as Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek or Hellenistic, and Roman.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT the name for Mesopotamia is Aram-naharaim, “Aram of the two rivers.” Abraham sent his servant, Eliezer, to Aram-naharaim to find a wife for Isaac (Gn 24:10). In this context it has been suggested that the two rivers were the Euphrates and the Khabur. The account of the adventures of Jacob in this area does not use the term Aram-naharaim but employs instead the name Paddan-aram, “the field [or garden] of Aram” (28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, the son of Beor, was from Pethor in Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). During the period of the judges, Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed Israel for eight years, but the Lord brought deliverance through Othniel (Jgs 3:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the Ammonites expected David to invade their territory because they had insulted his ambassadors, they hired chariotry from Mesopotamia and elsewhere to bolster their forces (1 Chr 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT Mesopotamia is mentioned only twice. People from Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Stephen, in his defense before the Sanhedrin, states that Abraham lived in Mesopotamia before he lived in Haran (Acts 7:2; see Gn 11:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESOPOTAMIA<\/h3>\n<p>Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey.<\/p>\n<p>Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered here. The Garden of Eden was situated in this area, for two of the rivers of Genesis 2:10-14 are identified as the Euphrates and the Tigris.<\/p>\n<p>The prehistoric cultures of Mesopotamia are unknown. The historical periods are labeled by the names of various cities that dominated them, such as Ur and Isin-Larsa, or by the names of dynasties established in those places, for example, Ur III.<\/p>\n\n<p>The southernmost part of Mesopotamia is known as Sumer and was populated by the Sumerians, who had a distinctive culture and a non-Semitic language, which was written in cuneiform script, as were most of the other languages of Mesopotamia. Farther north was the district called Akkad, which was also named Agade and had a Semitic population. Still farther north, along the Tigris, was the land that became Assyria, while to the far west was Syria, or Aram, and in between was Mitanni (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>). As portions of Mesopotamia slipped from hand to hand, various sections became parts of different empires, such as Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek or Hellenistic, and Roman.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT the name for Mesopotamia is Aram-naharaim, “Aram of the two rivers.” Abraham sent his servant, Eliezer, to Aram-naharaim to find a wife for Isaac (Gn 24:10). In this context it has been suggested that the two rivers were the Euphrates and the Khabur. The account of the adventures of Jacob in this area does not use the term Aram-naharaim but employs instead the name Paddan-aram, “the field [or garden] of Aram” (28:2).<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, the son of Beor, was from Pethor in Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). During the period of the judges, Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed Israel for eight years, but the Lord brought deliverance through Othniel (Jgs 3:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>When the Ammonites expected David to invade their territory because they had insulted his ambassadors, they hired chariotry from Mesopotamia and elsewhere to bolster their forces (1 Chr 19:6).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT Mesopotamia is mentioned only twice. People from Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9). Stephen, in his defense before the Sanhedrin, states that Abraham lived in Mesopotamia before he lived in Haran (Acts 7:2; see Gn 11:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESOPOTAMIA Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey. Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered he...","summary_en":"MESOPOTAMIA Name given by the Greeks to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, an area today called al-Jazira, “the island,” by the Arabs. Mesopotamia, which means literally “between the rivers,” is applied to the land between and near those rivers down to the Persian Gulf. Much of it is included in Iraq, but some of it is in Syria, and a small part in Turkey. Mesopotamia played a significant role in OT history. Much of the tightly compressed account of Genesis 1–11 was centered he...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30103,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pethor","title_en":"Pethor","content_ro":"<h3>PETHOR<\/h3>\n<p>Hometown of Balaam (Nm 22:5). Pethor is located in Upper Mesopotamia at the confluence of the Sajur River and the Euphrates. Balaam the son of Beor is said to have come from Pethor of Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). Pethor is identified with Pi-it\/ti-ru of the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III (859–824 <span>BC<\/span>) as a site on the Sajur River. The city was known according to the inscriptions as Pethor by the Hittites (i.e., Syrians or Arameans). It went from Assyrian control to Aramean dominion, was taken again by Shalmaneser, and resettled with Assyrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PETHOR<\/h3>\n<p>Hometown of Balaam (Nm 22:5). Pethor is located in Upper Mesopotamia at the confluence of the Sajur River and the Euphrates. Balaam the son of Beor is said to have come from Pethor of Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). Pethor is identified with Pi-it\/ti-ru of the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III (859–824 <span>BC<\/span>) as a site on the Sajur River. The city was known according to the inscriptions as Pethor by the Hittites (i.e., Syrians or Arameans). It went from Assyrian control to Aramean dominion, was taken again by Shalmaneser, and resettled with Assyrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PETHOR Hometown of Balaam (Nm 22:5). Pethor is located in Upper Mesopotamia at the confluence of the Sajur River and the Euphrates. Balaam the son of Beor is said to have come from Pethor of Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). Pethor is identified with Pi-it\/ti-ru of the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) as a site on the Sajur River. The city was known according to the inscriptions as Pethor by the Hittites (i.e., Syrians or Arameans). It went from Assyrian control to Aramean dominion, was take...","summary_en":"PETHOR Hometown of Balaam (Nm 22:5). Pethor is located in Upper Mesopotamia at the confluence of the Sajur River and the Euphrates. Balaam the son of Beor is said to have come from Pethor of Mesopotamia (Dt 23:4). Pethor is identified with Pi-it\/ti-ru of the inscriptions of Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) as a site on the Sajur River. The city was known according to the inscriptions as Pethor by the Hittites (i.e., Syrians or Arameans). It went from Assyrian control to Aramean dominion, was take...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45128,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:4","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","summary_en":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72754,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:4","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","summary_en":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100380,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:4","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","summary_en":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128006,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:4","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:4<\/strong> <em>Pethor<\/em> is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • <em>Aram-naharaim<\/em> (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","summary_en":"23:4 Pethor is now identified with Pitru in Mesopotamia (see study note on Num 22:5-6). • Aram-naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”) lies between the Euphrates and the Balih Rivers in upper Mesopotamia.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":3515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Balaam","title_en":"Balaam","content_ro":"<h3>BALAAM<\/h3>\n<p>Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of their own God, Yahweh, he could easily defeat them in battle and drive them away from his borders. Balak sent messengers to Pethor, where Balaam lived. The town is believed to be located near Haran along the Habur River, a tributary of the Euphrates. Balak offered Balaam an impressive sum to come down and curse the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, however, was warned by the Lord that he should not go to Moab. The king of Moab would not accept Balaam’s refusal and sent his royal messengers back with offers of greater wealth and honor. Balaam revealed an inner lust for wealth and position by returning to the Lord to ask whether he should go. His words to the messengers, however, were very pious: “Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of the <span>Lord<\/span> my God, to do less or more” (Nm 22:18, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although Balaam would do only what the Lord allowed, he became a prime example of someone who does the right thing for the wrong reason.<\/p>\n<p>Balak had sent along with his messengers “the fees for divination” (Nm 22:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), which shows that he considered Balaam a diviner of the type pagan nations commonly used. The Israelites were forbidden by the Lord to consult diviners or practice divination (Dt 18:10-11). A true prophet would not have even considered the possibility that serving Balak might be right. God’s final permission to let Balaam go, with the stipulation that he say only what God told him, was the Lord’s way of frustrating Balak’s cause and showing God’s care for his chosen people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Although he gave his permission, God was angry that Balaam went (Nm 22:22). So the Lord placed an angel with a drawn sword in Balaam’s path. His donkey could see the angel but Balaam could not. Not knowing why the donkey balked, Balaam beat her, and she was then miraculously given a voice to complain against his cruelty (vv 28-30).<\/p>\n<p>On the surface the story in Numbers 22 presents Balaam as a man who simply did what the Lord allowed him to do. But Deuteronomy 23:5 states that the Lord would not listen to Balaam and turned his intended curse into a blessing. When the Lord opened Balaam’s eyes, he saw the angel and fell flat on his face (Nm 22:31). Then he acknowledged his sin and proceeded to say only what the Lord put in his mouth. Balaam’s poems in Numbers 23 and 24 are in an archaic form of Hebrew that witnesses to their authenticity. They sometimes describe God’s past blessing on his people, and at other points predict his future blessing of Israel in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>Only blessings on Israel and never a single word of a curse were spoken by Balaam. The infuriated Moabite king took Balaam from one vantage point to another where they could look out over the Jordan Valley and see the Israelite encampment. When Balaam still did not curse them, Balak slapped his hands together in anger and packed the prophet off without any reward at all. But that was by no means the end of Balak’s attempt to weaken Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 25 tells how the Moabite king almost succeeded in turning the Israelites against the Lord. It describes a scene at Peor where Israelite men engaged in debauchery with Moabite women. That may have meant participation in the common heathen practice of temple prostitution, for according to Numbers 31:14-16, that had been Balaam’s advice to Balak and the Moabites on how to weaken Israel. Later Balaam was killed by the Israelites in their campaign against Midian (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Balak.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BALAAM<\/h3>\n<p>Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of their own God, Yahweh, he could easily defeat them in battle and drive them away from his borders. Balak sent messengers to Pethor, where Balaam lived. The town is believed to be located near Haran along the Habur River, a tributary of the Euphrates. Balak offered Balaam an impressive sum to come down and curse the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p>Balaam, however, was warned by the Lord that he should not go to Moab. The king of Moab would not accept Balaam’s refusal and sent his royal messengers back with offers of greater wealth and honor. Balaam revealed an inner lust for wealth and position by returning to the Lord to ask whether he should go. His words to the messengers, however, were very pious: “Though Balak were to give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the command of the <span>Lord<\/span> my God, to do less or more” (Nm 22:18, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although Balaam would do only what the Lord allowed, he became a prime example of someone who does the right thing for the wrong reason.<\/p>\n<p>Balak had sent along with his messengers “the fees for divination” (Nm 22:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), which shows that he considered Balaam a diviner of the type pagan nations commonly used. The Israelites were forbidden by the Lord to consult diviners or practice divination (Dt 18:10-11). A true prophet would not have even considered the possibility that serving Balak might be right. God’s final permission to let Balaam go, with the stipulation that he say only what God told him, was the Lord’s way of frustrating Balak’s cause and showing God’s care for his chosen people.<\/p>\n\n<p>Although he gave his permission, God was angry that Balaam went (Nm 22:22). So the Lord placed an angel with a drawn sword in Balaam’s path. His donkey could see the angel but Balaam could not. Not knowing why the donkey balked, Balaam beat her, and she was then miraculously given a voice to complain against his cruelty (vv 28-30).<\/p>\n<p>On the surface the story in Numbers 22 presents Balaam as a man who simply did what the Lord allowed him to do. But Deuteronomy 23:5 states that the Lord would not listen to Balaam and turned his intended curse into a blessing. When the Lord opened Balaam’s eyes, he saw the angel and fell flat on his face (Nm 22:31). Then he acknowledged his sin and proceeded to say only what the Lord put in his mouth. Balaam’s poems in Numbers 23 and 24 are in an archaic form of Hebrew that witnesses to their authenticity. They sometimes describe God’s past blessing on his people, and at other points predict his future blessing of Israel in a unique way.<\/p>\n<p>Only blessings on Israel and never a single word of a curse were spoken by Balaam. The infuriated Moabite king took Balaam from one vantage point to another where they could look out over the Jordan Valley and see the Israelite encampment. When Balaam still did not curse them, Balak slapped his hands together in anger and packed the prophet off without any reward at all. But that was by no means the end of Balak’s attempt to weaken Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 25 tells how the Moabite king almost succeeded in turning the Israelites against the Lord. It describes a scene at Peor where Israelite men engaged in debauchery with Moabite women. That may have meant participation in the common heathen practice of temple prostitution, for according to Numbers 31:14-16, that had been Balaam’s advice to Balak and the Moabites on how to weaken Israel. Later Balaam was killed by the Israelites in their campaign against Midian (Nm 31:8; Jos 13:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Balak.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BALAAM Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of...","summary_en":"BALAAM Beor’s son, a prophet or soothsayer from northern Mesopotamia who was hired by a Moabite king, Balak, to curse the Israelites who had arrived at the Jordan Valley opposite Jericho after 40 years of wandering in the wilderness. Israel’s defeat of the Amorites (Nm 21:21-25) had instilled fear in the heart of the Moabite king (22:3). Because curses and blessings were considered irrevocable (Gn 27:34-38), Balak reasoned that if he could hire a prophet to curse the Israelites in the name of...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":26104,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Marriage*, Mixed","title_en":"Marriage*, Mixed","content_ro":"<h3>MIXED MARRIAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4; Neh 13:23-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIXED MARRIAGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4; Neh 13:23-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIXED MARRIAGE* Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4;...","summary_en":"MIXED MARRIAGE* Marriages between Jews and Gentiles. Marriages to the original inhabitants of Canaan were forbidden lest Israel become idolatrous (Dt 7:1-5; cf. 2 Cor 6:14). Nevertheless, this prohibition was often neglected in the period of the judges (Jgs 3:6) and thereafter (2 Sm 11:3; 1 Kgs 11:1-8). No explicit prohibition was given against marriages with other nationalities (Nm 12:1; Dt 23:7; Ru 1:4). After the exile, marriages to Gentiles were repudiated by Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezr 9:1-4;...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27779,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Numbers","title_en":"Book of Numbers","content_ro":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NUMBERS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, <em>Numeri.<\/em> The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The question of the authorship of Numbers is part of the larger question of the authorship of the Pentateuch. Until the appearance of the higher-critical documentary theories of the 19th century, the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch was almost universally held by both Jews and Christians alike. This time-honored tradition is supported by the Pentateuch itself (e.g., Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nm 33:2; Dt 31:9, 24), the rest of the OT (e.g., Jos 23:6; Jgs 3:4; Mal 4:4), as well as Jesus’ teaching (e.g., Jn 5:46-47), and the rest of the NT (e.g., Acts 28:23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9). Although discrepancies in the Pentateuch were widely and openly acknowledged, nevertheless Moses, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> lawgiver, was affirmed as the primary author of the Pentateuchal literature.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<h5>Sinai Peninsula<\/h5>\n<p>The historical background of Numbers begins primarily in the geographical region of the Sinai Peninsula of the mid-second millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai Peninsula is in the shape of an inverted triangle with the base on the north. It is approximately 240 miles (386.2 kilometers) long from north to south and 175 miles (281.6 kilometers) wide at the northern base, with an area of approximately 22,000 square miles (56,980 square kilometers). It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and the southern border of Canaan, on the west by the Bitter Lakes and the Gulf of Suez, and on the east by the Arabah and the Gulf of Aqaba. Beginning in the north at the Mediterranean coast and moving south, for about 15 miles (24.1 kilometers) the soil is sandy. South of this coastal plain is a high plateau (Et-Tih) of gravel and limestone (about 2,500 feet, or 762 meters, above sea level), stretching south into the peninsula for approximately 150 miles (241.4 kilometers). Rising above the plateau at this point is a granite mountain formation with peaks up to 8,000 feet (2,438.4 meters) above sea level. In this mountainous region at the apex of the peninsular triangle, Jebel Musa (7,363 feet, or 2,244.2 meters, high), the traditional site where Israel camped before Mt Sinai and Moses received the law, rises above the plain.<\/p>\n<p>The peninsula itself is comprised of five wilderness areas. In the north and immediately east of the land of Goshen is the approximately 40-mile- or 64.4-kilometer-wide wilderness of Shur, which runs past the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish) to the region of Kadesh-barnea and northeast to Beersheba. East of this region is the wilderness of Zin, extending east from the wilderness of Shur to the southern tip of the Dead Sea. Kadesh-barnea is located on its southern border (Nm 20:1; 33:36). South of the wilderness of Shur is the wilderness of Etham, and east of this wilderness in the east-central region of Sinai is the great wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19). Kadesh-barnea is on the northern border of this territory (Nm 13:26). In this area the Israelites spent 38 of their 40 years of wandering. Southwest of the wilderness of Paran, on the western slopes of the peninsula, not far from the granite mountains standing in the southern apex of the triangle, is the wilderness of Sin.<\/p>\n<p>While the region is generally desolate and barren, it is not impassable or incapable of sustaining travelers. Wells and springs dot both the western and eastern borders at reasonable distances from each other. The water table is fairly close to ground level, making the digging of wells possible (Nm 20:17; 21:16-18). The limestone rocks are also capable of holding great amounts of water (20:11). Vegetation is sparse except around the more permanent streams where vegetation and date palms flourish. The rainy season in winter is approximately 20 days. Quail (11:31-32) are known to migrate across the peninsula to Europe in the spring.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Peoples Israel Confronted<\/h5>\n<h6>Amalekites and Canaanites (14:25, 43-45; 24:20)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amalekites were descendants of Amalek, son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Gn 36:12, 16). They were generally a nomadic people. In the Sinai Peninsula they were the first to war against Israel at Rephidim (cf. Nm 24:20), perhaps the Wadi Refayid in southwest Sinai (Ex 17:8-16), before Israel reached Horeb. A year later, the Amalekites settled in the hills and valleys north of Kadesh-barnea. In league with the Canaanites, the inhabitants of Palestine, they blocked the effort of Israel to invade the land of promise from the south (Nm 14:45). Israel’s will to wage war appears to have been completely broken for years to come.<\/p>\n<h6>Edomites (20:14-21; 21:4, 10-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Edom, or Seir (24:18), is the territory south of the Dead Sea occupied by Esau’s descendants. Stretching from its northern border at the Wadi Zered (21:12), which flowed into the Dead Sea at its southern tip, 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) south to the Gulf of Aqaba, it occupied both sides of the Arabah, with Kadesh-barnea again standing on the edge of its western border (20:16), giving it a land area of approximately 4,000 square miles (10,360 square kilometers). It is a rugged mountain region with peaks rising to 3,500 feet (1,066.8 meters). The “king’s highway,” an ancient trade route from Damascus through the Transjordan to the Gulf of Aqaba, passed through its territory and major cities, Bozrah and Leman. While Edom was not fertile, it did have cultivable areas (20:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s march to the Transjordan region, Edom refused to let Israel journey directly east from Kadesh through its territory but forced Israel to move southeast into and up the Arabah (21:4, 11). In spite of this hostility to God’s people, Israel was forbidden to attack (Dt 2:2-8) or to hate the Edomites (23:7), and so Edom was spared from destruction during the conquest of the land. The area was later conquered by David (2 Sm 8:13-14) according to Balaam’s prophecy (Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<h6>Arad (21:1-3)<\/h6>\n<p>Arad was a south Canaanite settlement in the Negev. Its king, after fighting against Israel and taking some captives, was later defeated at Hormah.<\/p>\n<h6>Moabites (21:11-15; 22:1–24:25)<\/h6>\n<p>Moab, occupied by the descendants of Lot (Gn 19:37), is the territory east of the Dead Sea lying primarily between the Wadi Arnon (Nm 21:13) and the Wadi Zered with a land area of approximately 1,400 square miles (3,626 square kilometers).<\/p>\n<p>In the late middle Bronze Age, the Moabites had overflowed their main plateau and had extended well to the north of the Arnon all the way to the northern end of the Dead Sea (21:20). At the time of the events recorded in Numbers, however, the Amorites occupied the area from Arnon all the way north to the Wadi Jabbok (vv 13, 21-24), having earlier taken this land from Moab (vv 26-30). The Moabite kingdom was highly organized, with agriculture and livestock, splendid buildings, distinctive pottery, and strong fortifications around her borders. Its god was Chemosh (v 29).<\/p>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab during the period of the conquest, in league with Midian, hired Balaam to curse Israel (chs 22–24). When this failed, the two heathen powers sought to neutralize Israel by luring the people of God into the worship of Chemosh and into idolatry (25:1-2). In the war that ensued, Israel defeated Midian (31:1-18), but by God’s express command (Dt 2:9-13) spared Moab. But as Balaam had prophesied earlier (Nm 24:17), David in the 11th century warred against and defeated Moab (2 Sm 8:2, 13-14).<\/p>\n<h6>Amorites (21:21-35)<\/h6>\n<p>The Amorites, the people who had occupied northern Moabite territory (Nm 21:25-30), were descendants of Canaan (Gn 10:16) who had scattered throughout the hill country on both sides of the Jordan River. Heshbon was their capital city. Both Sihon of Heshbon and Og of Bashan were Amorite kings (Dt 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>As for Bashan (Nm 21:33-35; cf. Dt 1:4; 3:1-12), it is the fertile grazing region (Nm 32:1-5) east of the Sea of Kinnereth (Galilee), whose northern border extended to Mt Hermon and whose southern border, while normally the river Yarmuk, in the Mosaic age was the Wadi Jabbok (Jos 12:4-5). Its land area covered approximately 5,000 square miles (12,950 square kilometers). Its major cities were Ashtaroth, Edrei, and Golan. After the conquest of the land, this territory fell to the half-tribe of Manasseh, with Gad occupying southern Gilead, and Reuben the region south to the Wadi Arnon.<\/p>\n<h6>Midianites (25:16-18; 31:1-54)<\/h6>\n<p>The Midianites, descendants of Abraham through the concubine Keturah (Gn 25:2), were desert dwellers in Transjordan from Moab to the region south of Edom. The elders of Moab and Midian cooperated in hiring Balaam to curse Israel (Nm 22:4-7). Later, when that effort proved fruitless, the Midianites, again with Moab, led Israel into idolatry and immorality (25:1-6, 14-15). Cozbi, the Midianite woman who was executed for her wickedness (25:8), was the daughter of Zur, one of the five Midianite kings confederate with the Amorite king Sihon (Jos 13:21) who were later killed in Israel’s holy war against Midian (Nm 31:8). This war with Midian apparently broke the back of any remaining Amorite resistance, for Joshua 13:15-23 clearly intimates that as a result the tribe of Reuben occupied this territory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Numbers serves a twofold purpose. First, as a historical book, it contains the account of Israel’s fortunes from Mt Sinai to the plains of Moab on the eve of the conquest of Canaan—that almost-40-year period spent in the wilderness of Sinai and in Transjordan (1447–1407 <span>BC<\/span>). While recounting Israel’s many failures and God’s many faithful acts, it depicts Moses, Israel’s leader, in all of his greatness and in all of his weakness. The two army rolls (chs 2 and 26) introduce the “acts” of the main drama of its history: the first in preparation for entering the land, which failed due to Israel’s unbelief; the second, after the death of the entire generation that left Egypt, in preparation for the successful invasion of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>Second, in line with Paul’s general belief that “whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4, <span>rsv<\/span>), and in keeping with his specific teaching that “these things [that befell Israel in the wilderness] happened to them as a warning, but they were written down for our instruction, upon whom the end of the ages has come” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>), Numbers serves a doctrinal, typical, and hortatory purpose (cf. v 12). Historical events are divinely invested with spiritual truths, thereby becoming object lessons for the Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 1<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to register (Nm 1:18) the men able to go to war (vv 2-3). The total number of soldiers in Israel was 603,550 (v 46). The Levites were not numbered in this roll (vv 47-54), since they were to be set apart for special service pertaining to the tabernacle.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 2<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses concerning the arrangement of the tribes while encamped and on the march. With the tabernacle in the center of the camp, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, totaling 186,400 (v 9), were to camp on the east; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, totaling 151,450 (v 16), were to camp on the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, totaling 108,100 (v 24), were to camp on the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, totaling 157,600 (v 31), were to camp on the north.<\/p>\n<p>On the march, Judah’s east group (v 9) was to set out first, followed by Reuben’s south group (v 16). The Levites with the tabernacle were to follow (v 17). Then Ephraim’s west group (v 24) was to follow the Levites, with Dan’s north group (v 31) bringing up the rear. This means that the Levites were flanked by two groups, before and behind.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 3<\/h5>\n<p>Aaron, the great-grandson of Levi through Kohath (Ex 6:16-20), and his descendants were designated to serve as priests at the tabernacle (Nm 3:2-3). The remaining descendants of Levi, from the families of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, were to serve the Aaronic line at the tabernacle (vv 5-10). The Gershonites were responsible for the tabernacle coverings, hangings, and screens (vv 25-26); the Kohathites were responsible for the “furniture” in the tabernacle (v 31); and the Merarites were responsible for the frames, bars, and foundations for the tabernacle (vv 36-37).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed Moses to number the three Levitical families. Gershon’s descendants, totaling 7,500 (v 22), were to camp on the west, between the western group of tribes and the tabernacle. Kohath’s descendants, totaling 8,600 (v 28), were to camp on the south, between the southern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Merari’s descendants, totaling 6,200 (v 34), were to camp on the north, between the northern group of tribes and the tabernacle. Moses and the Aaronic family were to camp on the east, between the eastern group of tribes and the tabernacle (v 38). Both in camp and on the march, then, the tabernacle was in the midst of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The census of Israel’s firstborn males disclosed 273 more male babies than Levites (vv 40-46), and since the Levites were a ransom for Israelite males on a one-to-one basis, the 273 additional male children had to be ransomed by atonement money (vv 46-51).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 4<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Moses that only Levites between the ages of 30 and 50 were to serve at the tabernacle. A census disclosed that there were 2,750 Kohathites (v 36), 2,630 Gershonites (v 40), and 3,200 Merarites (v 44), making a total of 8,580 (v 48) who were eligible to serve the Aaronic priests.<\/p>\n<p>God further ordered the Aaronic priests, when the tabernacle was being dismantled for the march, to cover all the tabernacle “furniture” before the Kohathites even looked at them (v 20) lest the Kohathites, either looking at or touching them (v 15), should die (vv 15, 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 5<\/h5>\n<p>For ceremonial purposes, God demanded that lepers, those with a bodily discharge, and those who had touched the dead, must be put outside the camp until they were purified (vv 1-4). Furthermore, God instructed those making restitution for a wrongdoing, if the wronged person was no longer alive, to give the restitution price to a priest (vv 5-10).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, if a woman was suspected by her husband of infidelity but there was no evidence of such, the woman was to undergo a trial by water ordeal to relieve the man of his suspicions. The priest was to give her holy water with dust from the floor of the tabernacle in it to drink. If she was guilty, the water by divine direction would cause her pain, make her abdomen swell, and her thigh waste away (vv 11-31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 6<\/h5>\n<p>Laws pertaining to the Nazirite were given next. A Nazirite was a person who determined to take a vow to separate himself wholly to the Lord. To dramatize this separation, the Nazirite was to drink no intoxicating beverage, let the hair grow long, and touch no dead body (vv 3-6). Should he defile himself, he was to follow prescribed rules for ceremonial cleansing (vv 9-12). When his vow had run its course, he was to follow prescribed rules for terminating his vow (vv 13-21). Finally, God instructed the Aaronic priesthood concerning the blessing they were to pronounce upon the Israelite worshiper (vv 22-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 7<\/h5>\n<p>The leaders in Israel brought six wagons and twelve oxen for use in the transfer of the tabernacle (7:3). Moses gave two wagons and four oxen to the Gershonites (v 7), and four wagons and eight oxen to the Merarites (v 8). (The Kohathites were to carry the “furniture” of the tabernacle on their shoulders, v 9.) For twelve consecutive days, to consecrate the altar after it was anointed (vv 10, 88), the tribal leaders, in the order of march (cf. ch 2), brought similar offerings. God demonstrated his pleasure with this gesture by speaking to Moses from the mercy seat (v 89).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 8<\/h5>\n<p>God granted the prerogative to light the seven-branched lampstand to the Aaronic priests (vv 1-4). Following divine instructions, Moses and Aaron consecrated the Levites to the service of the tabernacle by means of a purification ceremony (vv 5-22).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 9:1–10:10<\/h5>\n<p>For the benefit of the worshiper who was ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time of the Passover, God granted permission to observe the Passover a month later (vv 6-12; see also ch 27).<\/p>\n<p>God gave final instructions to the people before their departure from Sinai. They were to prepare for marching when they saw the cloud ascending from the tabernacle, and they were to stop at the place where the cloud settled down (9:15-23). The people were to assemble at the tabernacle if two silver trumpets were blown; only the leaders were to come if one was blown; and at the blast of a military alarm, the several groups of tribes were to prepare for an immediate march (10:1-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 10:11–14:45<\/h5>\n<p>The next section recounts the march from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, a period of time approximately one and a half to two months in length (cf. 10:11; 13:20). Almost immediately the people began to complain as they passed through the terrible wilderness of Paran (Dt 1:19), angering the Lord at Taberah (Nm 11:1-3) and at Kibroth-hattaavah (Nm 11:4-35; Pss 78:26-31; 106:13-15). Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ sole right to speak for God to the people, which resulted in temporary leprosy as punishment for Miriam (doubtless the leader in the provocation). Through Moses’ intercession, the two were forgiven (Nm 12). Out of this event, however, came the remarkable description of Moses’ relationship to God as a unique means of revelation (vv 6-8).<\/p>\n<p>From Paran (Kadesh-barnea) Moses dispatched the spies to survey the land (ch 13). Deuteronomy 1:22 suggests that the plan to spy out the land originated with the people, with Moses (at God’s behest) acquiescing. At the end of 40 days, they returned. Only Caleb and Joshua urged the people to advance to the conquest; the other 10 spies spoke of foes too formidable for them to defeat. The people, greatly discouraged, attempted to stone Caleb and Joshua (Nm 14:10), and were prevented from doing so only by the sudden appearance of the glory cloud at the tabernacle. God swore in his wrath (Nm 14:21; cf. Heb 3:7–4:10) that, with the exception of Caleb and Joshua, none of that generation would enter the land of promise (Nm 14:21-35). He then struck down the 10 unbelieving spies (v 37). Presumptuously, and in spite of God’s express command to the contrary (Dt 1:42), Israel attempted to advance on the land, leaving Moses and the ark of the covenant in the camp. They were challenged by the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<p>Israel remained in this general area with tribal families fanning out over the wilderness and settling around springs and oases (Dt 1:46). Numbers 15:1–21:20 relates the account of the 38 years of wilderness wandering. Much of this time was probably spent around Kadesh-barnea (Dt 1:46).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 15<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given (Nm 15:1-21). Also, the procedure to be followed when an Israelite committed a sin deliberately and defiantly was spelled out in terms of excommunication: there was no atonement for such an attitude (vv 22-31). A Sabbath violator was executed (vv 32-36), perhaps as an illustration of the foregoing legislation. Finally, to assist them in obeying God’s laws, the Israelites were instructed to tie blue tassels to their outer garments as reminders (vv 37-41).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 16<\/h5>\n<p>Korah challenged Aaron’s high priesthood, and Dathan, Abiram, and On challenged Moses’ leadership (vv 1-14). God, at Moses’ word, opened up the earth and swallowed the offenders (Nm 16:32; cf. Dt 9:6; Ps 106:16-18). Korah is regarded in the NT (Jude 1:11) as a classic example of a rebellious malcontent.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 26:11 states that Korah’s young children did not perish with him. Perhaps they became the ancestors of the “sons of Korah,” the sacred musicians of the temple who composed 12 Korahite psalms (Pss 42–49, 84–85, 87–88).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 17<\/h5>\n<p>God then instructed the leaders of each tribe to bring rods, 12 in all, to write the names of the tribes upon them (with Aaron’s name on Levi’s rod), and to deposit them in the tabernacle. The following day, Aaron’s rod had sprouted with blossoms and ripe almonds, thus vindicating Aaron’s special high-priestly status.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 18–19<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation was given. In 18:1-7, the full responsibility for the priestly service was given to the Aaronic priests—a very natural consequence of the preceding chapter. The Levites were to assist the Aaronic order (v 6). Since the tribe of Levi received no land inheritance, they were to be supported from the offerings of the people (vv 8-20).<\/p>\n<p>In 19:1-22 instructions concerning ceremonial impurity were given. When an Israelite became ceremonially unclean through contact with death (vv 11-16), God required that he be purified from his sin (vv 9, 17) by the sprinkling of specially prepared water upon him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 20<\/h5>\n<p>With Israel once again at Kadesh on the southern border of the wilderness of Zin in the first month of the 40th year of wandering, Miriam died and was buried (v 1). According to the encampment list in chapter 33, 18 encampments may have occurred for Israel since the nation had last been at this site (cf. 33:18-36).<\/p>\n<p>At this time the nation complained once again because there was little water (20:2). Moses, at God’s instruction, brought forth water from a rock (vv 8-11), but because of a gross infraction by Moses and Aaron on this occasion, God announced that they would not be permitted to lead Israel in the conquest of the land (vv 12, 23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The chapter closes with Edom refusing Israel passage across its territory (vv 14-21) and Aaron dying on Mt Hor on the border of Edom (vv 22-29) in the fifth month of the 40th year (33:38). Eleazar, Aaron’s son, assumed the office of high priest.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 21<\/h5>\n<p>After a quick victory over Arad (vv 1-3), Israel started south to encircle Edom. Becoming impatient with God and with Moses, the people expressed their disgust with God’s provision of manna. The Lord sent poisonous snakes to the camp, causing many to die. But at God’s command Moses fashioned a snake out of bronze and placed it atop a standard. All who looked to the bronze snake survived (vv 4-10). The bronze snake was preserved and later was destroyed by Hezekiah, the symbol having become by his time an idol (2 Kgs 18:4). Later still, Jesus drew an analogy between these wicked sinners looking to the bronze snake and being delivered and men looking to him by faith and being saved (Jn 3:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>Leaving that fateful place, Israel journeyed into and up the Arabah, crossed the Wadi Zered in an eastern swing around Moab, finally crossing the Arnon into Amorite territory. Journeying north, they camped at Pisgah (Nm 21:10-20).<\/p>\n<p>At this point the conquest of the Transjordan begins. In quick succession Israel defeated Sihon of Heshbon (vv 21-31) and Og of Bashan (vv 33-35) and settled in the plains of Moab (22:1). This encampment was the scene for the remainder of the activities of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua 1–3. In a real sense, one can say the wilderness wanderings were now over.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the place, then, to summarize the spiritual condition of Israel on the eve of the conquest of Canaan. Numbers makes it quite evident that the entire generation that left Egypt, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, was to die in the wilderness because of its apostasy (cf. Am 5:25), unbelief, and general failure to keep covenant with God. None of the generation of male children born in the wilderness had been circumcised (Jos 5:2-9). Psalm 90 underscores Israel as the recipient of God’s wrath in the wilderness. It is in this pitiable spiritual condition that Israel arrived on the plains of Moab.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 22–24<\/h5>\n<p>Balak, king of Moab, frightened by Israel’s presence, joined with Midian to hire Balaam, the false prophet, to curse Israel. For gain, Balaam agreed (2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11), but God prevented him, causing him rather to bless Israel in his four oracular utterances (Nm 23:7-10, 18-24; 24:3-9, 15-19) and to predict the destruction of Moab, Edom, Amalek (24:20), the Kenites (24:21), and Asshur (24:24). With that, Balak and Balaam separated. Balaam, in collusion with Midian, agreed to counsel Israel to commit idolatry and immorality (31:16). And so, where Balak failed to turn the Lord against Israel, Balaam succeeded (ch 25).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 25<\/h5>\n<p>Israel sinned against God by idolatrous and immoral acts with the people of Moab (vv 1-3). In carrying out the command of God to destroy the reprobate Israelites, Phinehas killed Zimri and Cozbi, the latter being a daughter of one of the five kings of Midian (vv 4-14). This event provided the occasion for God to declare a holy war against Midian (vv 16-18; cf. ch 31).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 26<\/h5>\n<p>The Lord commanded Moses to take a roll of the men of the second generation who were capable of warring against Israel’s enemies. The total number came to 601,730 (v 51), a reduction of 1,820 men from the first count. With a smaller force than the first generation, Israel conquered Canaan, clearly indicating that Israel could have spared itself the years of wandering if only the nation had obeyed God 38 years before Kadesh. The Levites totaled 23,000 males a month old and upward (vv 57-62).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 27<\/h5>\n<p>At the request of the daughters of Zelophehad (cf. 26:33) that they be granted the right to inherit their father’s possessions since he had no sons, the Lord agreed that they could, using the occasion to give further laws of inheritance (vv 1-11).<\/p>\n<p>Reminded that he would soon die in Abarim, Moses requested that God appoint his successor. God selected Joshua, and Moses commissioned him (vv 12-23).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 28–30<\/h5>\n<p>Further priestly legislation regarding offerings for various occasions was given. God also instructed Moses to inform the people concerning vows. When a man made a vow, it was inviolable (30:2), but if a woman made a vow, the man (father, husband) responsible for her could nullify it if he felt that it was rash (vv 1-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 31<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the holy war declared against Midian in 25:16-18 is given. With Phinehas accompanying 12,000 warriors, Israel defeated Midian, killing Balaam along with the five kings and many male adults of Midian (31:1-8). The Midianite women and children were taken captive, but Moses commanded that all the male children and the nonvirgin women be killed (vv 9-18). One must not conclude that this war meant the end of Midian as such, for Midian later proved a formidable foe of Israel in the time of the judges (Jgs 6).<\/p>\n<p>After the battle, the warriors were instructed to purify themselves, their clothing, and the booty from the war before coming into the camp (Nm 31:19-24). Furthermore, they were instructed to divide the booty in half and to contribute one-fifth of one percent of their half to the high priest (“the Lord’s tribute”). The other half was divided among the people who had remained in camp, after the Levites received a two percent contribution (vv 25-31).<\/p>\n<p>Verses 32-47 give the tally of the booty after its division into two parts and the amount that was given from each part to Eleazar and the Levites. The tally is said by some to be too high to be authentic, but there is no evidence that disputes the recorded figures.<\/p>\n<p>In thanksgiving to God because no Israelite had been killed in the war (v 49) and to make atonement for themselves (v 50), the army officers brought a special offering of gold trinkets to Moses and Eleazar, which was placed in the tabernacle as a memorial (vv 48-54).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 32<\/h5>\n<p>At their request and on the condition that they aid the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan, Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh were allotted the Transjordan region. Moses earnestly besought the Lord to change his mind about not permitting him to enter the land of promise (Dt 3:23-27). But God would not let him.<\/p>\n<h5>Chapters 33–34<\/h5>\n<p>At God’s command, Moses kept a written record of Israel’s itinerary from Egypt to the plains of Moab. Here is biblical evidence of the Mosaic authorship of Numbers.<\/p>\n<p>The boundaries of the Promised Land were now given. The southern boundary would run from the southern tip of the Dead Sea, south of Kadesh-barnea up to the River of Egypt (Wadi el-Arish), and on to the Mediterranean Sea (34:3-5). The western boundary would be the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea itself (v 6). The northern boundary, not realized until the times of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:3-12; 1 Kgs 8:65), was to extend from the Mediterranean Sea east to Hamath, at the head of the Orontes River (Nm 34:7-9). The eastern boundary was to be practically on a vertical line, with the Jordan Valley running north to the northern boundary (vv 10-12). The nine and a half tribes were to divide this area among themselves (vv 13-15).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord then selected the men who were to bear the responsibility of dividing the land of Canaan among the western tribes after the conquest (vv 16-29).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 35<\/h5>\n<p>God instructed Israel to give 48 cities throughout the land on both sides of the Jordan to the Levites for a permanent possession (vv 1-8), since that tribe was not included in the land allotments to the other tribes. The number of cities each tribe was to give was to be determined by its size (v 8). Six of the Levitical cities, three on each side of the Jordan, were to be designated “cities of refuge” for the manslayer (v 6; cf. Jos 20).<\/p>\n<p>Legislation concerning the manslayer follows (vv 9-34). If the slayer committed murder, the kinsman avenger had the right to fulfill his role as executioner (vv 16-21). If, however, the killing was unintentional, the manslayer was to flee to the nearest city of refuge for a trial. If found innocent of murder, he was assigned to remain within the city of refuge until the death of the high priest. If he left the city before then, the kinsman avenger was permitted to execute him (vv 22-34).<\/p>\n<h5>Chapter 36<\/h5>\n<p>Basing their question on the earlier law established in chapter 27, the leaders from Manasseh asked whether an heiress should be allowed to marry outside her tribe, with the accompanying transfer of property from one tribe to another that would ensue. God directed that an heiress would have to marry within her tribe (vv 1-12).<\/p>\n<p>The last verse of the book refers to all the laws given in the plains of Moab (26:1–36:12; cf. Lv 27:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalTeaching\">Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Numbers God is revealed as the unchangingly faithful God of the covenant (Nm 23:19). This faithfulness to his covenant required that he both guide and care for his people and punish their sins against him. But no impediment was so great that God’s design to bring his people to the land of promise was thwarted (11:23).<\/p>\n<p>Both by his wrathful reaction to Israel’s sin and by the numerous priestly laws, God highlights his awesome holiness. The legislation expressly teaches that the person who approaches God must be clean. Even to look with unholy eyes upon the holiness of God meant death (4:20).<\/p>\n<p>His sovereignty over all of life is evident from the attention he displays over even the minutest aspects of life. The phrase “And the Lord said unto Moses” occurs over 50 times, and the words that follow in each case deal with all kinds of matters.<\/p>\n<p>As the God of the covenant, God’s “christological” character is also apparent. God’s blessing and faithfulness reflect the christological motif. Finally, Moses’ prophetic leadership (Acts 7:37-38) and intercessory ministry (e.g., Nm 11:2; 12:13; 14:19), in the Aaronic priesthood (e.g., ch 16), in the animal sacrifices (cf. 19:9; Heb 9:13), and in the symbols (the manna, the water, the bronze snake) foreshadow the future Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s responses to God, the people depict all of human sinfulness and faithlessness. Israel’s wanderings illustrate the results of unbelief. The punishments of Israel prove the maxim of Numbers 32:23: “But if you fail to keep your word, then you will have sinned against the <span>Lord<\/span>, and you may be sure that your sin will find you out” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Numbers forcefully teaches that safety and blessing are to be found only in trust in the Lord. Only he is capable of bringing men and women to the place of rest (Heb 4:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Deuteronomy, Book of; Exodus, Book of; Genesis, Book of; Leviticus, Book of; Moses; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","summary_en":"NUMBERS, Book of Fourth book of the English Bible. Its title is the English translation of the Latin Vulgate title, Numeri. The book takes this name from the fact that several rosters of various kinds are recorded in the book, specifically, the two army musters in chapters 1 and 26, the tribal camp and march arrangements in chapter 2, and the Levitical censuses in chapters 3 and 4. Preview • Author • Background • Purpose • Content • Theological Teaching Author The question of the authorship o...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45129,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:7","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","summary_en":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72755,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:7","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","summary_en":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100381,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:7","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","summary_en":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128007,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:7","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:7<\/strong> The <em>Edomites<\/em> were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","summary_en":"23:7 The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s brother, Esau (see 2:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":45130,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:8","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","summary_en":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72756,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:8","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","summary_en":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100382,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:8","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","summary_en":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128008,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:8","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:8<\/strong> <em>third generation:<\/em> Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","summary_en":"23:8 third generation: Following a long period of probation, Edomites and Egyptians who lived in Israel could worship the Lord as converts to the faith.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":6824,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Regulations concerning Cleanness and Uncleanness","title_en":"and Uncleanness, Regulations concerning, Cleanness","content_ro":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","summary_en":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45131,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:10","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","summary_en":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72757,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:10","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","summary_en":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100383,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:10","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","summary_en":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128009,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:10","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:10<\/strong> <em>nocturnal emission:<\/em> Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","summary_en":"23:10 nocturnal emission: Although they might have been unintentional or involuntary, these discharges rendered a man ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:16-18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":6859,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Regulations concerning Cleanness and Uncleanness","title_en":"and Uncleanness, Regulations concerning, Cleanness","content_ro":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","summary_en":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45132,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","summary_en":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72758,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","summary_en":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100384,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","summary_en":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128010,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:12<\/strong> <em>outside the camp:<\/em> Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","summary_en":"23:12 outside the camp: Defecation is a normal bodily function, but it brought ritual impurity and therefore violated God’s holiness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":45133,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","summary_en":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72759,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","summary_en":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100385,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","summary_en":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128011,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:13<\/strong> It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","summary_en":"23:13 It would be disgusting and shameful to have an open latrine outside the camp, let alone within it.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":45134,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","summary_en":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72760,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","summary_en":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100386,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","summary_en":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128012,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:14<\/strong> <em>shameful thing<\/em> (literally <em>nakedness of a thing<\/em>): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","summary_en":"23:14 shameful thing (literally nakedness of a thing): Because the camp of God’s army was holy, it was necessary that nakedness, especially of the genitalia, not be exposed within the camp (cp. Gen 2:25; 3:7-11; 9:21-23; Exod 20:26; Isa 47:3; Rev 3:18).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":31763,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prostitution Prostitute","title_en":"Prostitution Prostitute","content_ro":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","summary_en":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45135,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:17","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","summary_en":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72761,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:17","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","summary_en":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100387,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:17","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","summary_en":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128013,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:17","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:17<\/strong> <em>A temple prostitute<\/em> was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","summary_en":"23:17 A temple prostitute was commonly a part of Canaanite religious rituals, but they were forbidden in Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":16905,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"House of God","title_en":"House of God","content_ro":"<h3>HOUSE OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Common phrase used in the ancient Near Eastern world for a structure used to accommodate a deity or his servants. In the OT it referred to the tabernacle (Dt 23:18; 1 Chr 6:31-32), Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 8:11-20; 12:27; Jer 20:1), national shrines, or pagan temples (Jgs 9:4; 2 Kgs 10:21).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times the OT custom of referring to the temple as the “house of God” was still employed (Mt 12:4; Mk 2:26; 11:17; Lk 6:4; Jn 2:16-17), but with some significant changes. After Christ’s ascension, the church viewed itself as the house of God (1 Cor 3:9; Heb 3:6; 1 Pt 2:5; 4:17). God no longer dwelt in buildings made by human hands but in the lives of those who confess Jesus as Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOUSE OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Common phrase used in the ancient Near Eastern world for a structure used to accommodate a deity or his servants. In the OT it referred to the tabernacle (Dt 23:18; 1 Chr 6:31-32), Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 8:11-20; 12:27; Jer 20:1), national shrines, or pagan temples (Jgs 9:4; 2 Kgs 10:21).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times the OT custom of referring to the temple as the “house of God” was still employed (Mt 12:4; Mk 2:26; 11:17; Lk 6:4; Jn 2:16-17), but with some significant changes. After Christ’s ascension, the church viewed itself as the house of God (1 Cor 3:9; Heb 3:6; 1 Pt 2:5; 4:17). God no longer dwelt in buildings made by human hands but in the lives of those who confess Jesus as Lord.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOUSE OF GOD Common phrase used in the ancient Near Eastern world for a structure used to accommodate a deity or his servants. In the OT it referred to the tabernacle (Dt 23:18; 1 Chr 6:31-32), Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 8:11-20; 12:27; Jer 20:1), national shrines, or pagan temples (Jgs 9:4; 2 Kgs 10:21). In NT times the OT custom of referring to the temple as the “house of God” was still employed (Mt 12:4; Mk 2:26; 11:17; Lk 6:4; Jn 2:16-17), but with some significant changes. After Christ’s as...","summary_en":"HOUSE OF GOD Common phrase used in the ancient Near Eastern world for a structure used to accommodate a deity or his servants. In the OT it referred to the tabernacle (Dt 23:18; 1 Chr 6:31-32), Solomon’s temple (1 Kgs 8:11-20; 12:27; Jer 20:1), national shrines, or pagan temples (Jgs 9:4; 2 Kgs 10:21). In NT times the OT custom of referring to the temple as the “house of God” was still employed (Mt 12:4; Mk 2:26; 11:17; Lk 6:4; Jn 2:16-17), but with some significant changes. After Christ’s as...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31779,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prostitution Prostitute","title_en":"Prostitution Prostitute","content_ro":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION<\/h3>\n<p>Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forbidden by the law of Moses (Lv 19:29; 21:9). The “strange woman” was another kind of prostitute (1 Kgs 11:1; Prv 5:20; 6:24; 7:5; 23:27). There are different opinions for why that name was given to prostitutes. One explanation is that it referred to a man leaving his own wife for another, who ought to be a stranger to him (Prv 5:17-20). It may also have referred to a foreign woman (Nm 25:1; Jos 23:13). “Prostitute” also refers to any woman, married or single, who practices unlawful sexual indulgence, whether for lust or monetary gain (Mt 21:31-32; Lk 15:30; 1 Cor 6:15-16; Heb 11:31; Jas 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Prostitution appeared early in Israel’s life and continued throughout biblical history. Most biblical passages strongly condemn the practice of prostitution in any form. The priestly law of Leviticus 21:9 provided that a priest’s daughter who practiced prostitution was to be burned to death. A priest could not marry a prostitute (Lv 19:29), and the wages of prostitution could not be used to pay vows in the temple (Dt 23:18). These prohibitions served to keep the worship of the Lord free from the practice of cult prostitution.<\/p>\n<p>The sons of Jacob killed Hamor and his son Shechem, justifying their act by saying: “Should he treat our sister like a prostitute?” (Gn 34:31, <span>nlt<\/span>). Amaziah’s wife was to become a prostitute (Am 7:17) as punishment for his treatment of the prophet Amos.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century, prostitutes and tax collectors were equally detested by the Jews (Mt 21:32). According to Paul, the body of a Christian belongs to Christ and should not be joined to a prostitute’s body (1 Cor 6:15-16). Proverbs is replete with warnings to those who would go in to prostitutes.<\/p>\n<p>A few biblical passages do, however, seem to accept the prostitute as a member of the community. Tamar temporarily served as a prostitute to remind her father-in-law of his promise to her (Gn 38:14-15). Rahab the prostitute had a special place in Hebrew history because she had befriended the Hebrew spies (Jos 2:4-16; Heb 11:31).<\/p>\n<p>The words “prostitute” and “prostitution” were used figuratively for idolatry, especially in the prophetic books (Jer 2:20; Rv 17:1, 5, 15-16; 19:2). This figurative use was based on the marriagelike relationship of the Lord and his people (Jer 3:20). When the people gave their allegiance to idols rather than to God, he charged that they were prostitutes for other gods (Jgs 8:33). The same idea is found in the NT (Rv 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","summary_en":"PROSTITUTE, PROSTITUTION Person guilty of illicit sexual relationships; figuratively, one who worships an idol. The term “prostitute” translates four different words found in the Bible. One type of prostitute was the man or woman, married or unmarried, who committed immoral acts (Gn 34:31; Jgs 19:2; Prv 23:27). A different kind of prostitute was the temple prostitute of heathen religions in which fornication was part of the worship (Gn 38:21-22; Dt 23:17; Hos 4:14). Such prostitution was forb...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38104,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wages","title_en":"Wages","content_ro":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WAGES<\/h3>\n<p>Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in capturing the city of Tyre (Ez 29:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Usually wages were agreed upon by employer and employee (Gn 29:15-19; Mt 20:2), but sometimes the pay was at the discretion of the employer (Mt 20:4). A fair wage for honest work is a biblical principle (Lk 10:7; 1 Tm 5:18). The Lord established laws to cover this principle and judged those who violated it. Wages were to be paid promptly (Lv 19:13); the holding back of wages is condemned in the Scripture (Mal 3:5; Jas 5:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>Wages were often a source of discontent and dispute between employer and employee. When soldiers came to John the Baptist to be baptized and asked about their future conduct, he urged them to be content with their wages (Lk 3:14). Jacob and Laban had disagreements about wages and twice Jacob complained, “You have changed my wages ten times” (Gn 31:7, 41).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible also speaks of ill-gotten wages. The wages of a prostitute could not be brought into the house of the Lord (Dt 23:18), and people are warned against the error of Balaam, who corrupted Israel because he “loved the wages of unrighteousness” (2 Pt 2:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Money; Banker, Banking; Poor, The; Riches; Work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","summary_en":"WAGES Payment received by a laborer in return for his work. Usually wages are calculated in terms of a medium of exchange, such as money, but they can be paid in any kind of goods or services. Jacob worked seven years in return for Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel (Gn 29:18-20), and then had to work another seven years when Laban did not honor his agreement. Later, Jacob’s wages were sheep and goats (30:31-32; 31:8). Nebuchadnezzar was given the country of Egypt as wages for his work in captu...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45136,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:18","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","summary_en":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72762,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:18","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","summary_en":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100388,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:18","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","summary_en":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128014,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:18","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:18<\/strong> <em>a man:<\/em> The Hebrew word (literally <em>a dog<\/em>) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","summary_en":"23:18 a man: The Hebrew word (literally a dog) was a derogatory term for homosexual men, who often took part in Canaanite religious ceremonies.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61116,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88742,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116368,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143994,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":5554,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Borrowing Borrow","title_en":"Borrowing Borrow","content_ro":"<h3>BORROW, BORROWING<\/h3>\n<p>Receiving money or goods that one pledges to return. The Mosaic law regulated borrowing and lending (Dt 23:19-20). <em>See<\/em> Banker, Banking.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BORROW, BORROWING<\/h3>\n<p>Receiving money or goods that one pledges to return. The Mosaic law regulated borrowing and lending (Dt 23:19-20). <em>See<\/em> Banker, Banking.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BORROW, BORROWING Receiving money or goods that one pledges to return. The Mosaic law regulated borrowing and lending (Dt 23:19-20). See Banker, Banking.","summary_en":"BORROW, BORROWING Receiving money or goods that one pledges to return. The Mosaic law regulated borrowing and lending (Dt 23:19-20). See Banker, Banking.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8036,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Creditor Credit","title_en":"Creditor Credit","content_ro":"<h3>CREDIT, CREDITOR<\/h3>\n<p>Acknowledgment of payment on a debt incurred through goods or services sold on trust, and the one who operates the business of selling on credit. The Mosaic law regulated credit and creditors (Dt 23:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Debt.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CREDIT, CREDITOR<\/h3>\n<p>Acknowledgment of payment on a debt incurred through goods or services sold on trust, and the one who operates the business of selling on credit. The Mosaic law regulated credit and creditors (Dt 23:19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Debt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CREDIT, CREDITOR Acknowledgment of payment on a debt incurred through goods or services sold on trust, and the one who operates the business of selling on credit. The Mosaic law regulated credit and creditors (Dt 23:19-20). See also Banker, Banking; Debt.","summary_en":"CREDIT, CREDITOR Acknowledgment of payment on a debt incurred through goods or services sold on trust, and the one who operates the business of selling on credit. The Mosaic law regulated credit and creditors (Dt 23:19-20). See also Banker, Banking; Debt.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8090,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","title_en":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","content_ro":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","summary_en":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9151,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Debt","title_en":"Debt","content_ro":"<h3>DEBT<\/h3>\n<p>Something owed to another person, such as goods, property, or money. In the Bible, righteous conduct is something one “owes” to God; hence, in theology, sin is described figuratively as being “in debt.”<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew culture, debt was usually connected with usury (the business of lending money on interest). The Hebrew verbs describing usury picture a painful situation. One word for usury means “to bite,” a vivid image for the way high interest “ate up” any kind of business transaction so that borrowers never received the full value of the money. People could be ruined financially by heartless exaction of interest (2 Kgs 4:1-7). Another verb is usually translated as “increase” or “profit” (Lv 25:37), since lenders profited from others’ labor. Ancient Near Eastern interest rates on produce and goods might be as much as 30 percent of the loan per year; on money, as much as 20 percent. Clay tablets from Nuzi, an ancient town in northeastern Mesopotamia, indicate interest rates of even 50 percent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLawofMoses\">The Law of Moses<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic covenant given to Israel immediately after the exodus sought to eliminate extortionist practices from Hebrew life. Thus God’s revelation had many rules and restrictions relating to debt and credit in Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Protection for the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Portions of the legislative sections of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) regulated the practice of lending in a way that protected the poor and secured each person’s right to earn a living and support a family. Many popular Hebrew proverbs dealt with that theme. The positive thrust of the biblical laws was to ensure help for the financially needy, without interest. No personal profit was to be made at the expense of the poor (Ex 22:25; Dt 23:19-20); God was their special advocate. Thus, by lending without interest, the Israelites could demonstrate their reverence for God (Lv 25:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>That point was reemphasized 40 years later when Moses renewed the covenant with Israel just before their entrance into the Promised Land. God was the landlord, and his tenants were to respect his word. God promised the Israelites that if they would lend so as to alleviate human misery, they would be unusually blessed by the Lord (Dt 15:6; 23:19-20; 28:12). Interest could be charged to a foreigner not living under the Mosaic law, which was a condition parallel to commercial treaties prevalent in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, financial ruin was frequently brought about by poor harvests. Often they were taken as an indication that the relationship between God and his people was not right (Lv 26:14, 20). The wealthy were expected to help, not to add more burdens to those who suffered from poor harvests.<\/p>\n<h5>Violation of the Law<\/h5>\n<p>The law was so often violated that eventually exorbitant interest became a social plague, making the situation of debtors hopeless. Many of the fighting men who rallied around David early in his military career were “outlaws” unable to repay their loans and interest (1 Sm 22:2). The prophet Ezekiel called people to task for their failure to observe God’s commands about usury (Ez 18:5-18; 22:12). When Nehemiah returned from the exile to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, he brought charges against the government officials whose interest rates had enslaved the people (Neh 5:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The Wisdom Literature, which included Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, added that those who acquired riches by usury would not profit in the long run, because God would give their profits to others who looked after the welfare of the poor (e.g., Prv 28:8). The prophet Amos gave a similar warning to corrupt merchants in Israel: “Because you trample upon the poor and take from him exactions of wheat, . . . you have planted pleasant vineyards, but you shall not drink their wine” (Am 5:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In spite of such warnings, the law was often ignored, and burdensome interest charges were laid on borrowers who were already poor.<\/p>\n<h5>Pledges and Surety<\/h5>\n<p>When it was necessary to borrow, the law provided alternatives to the unfair practice of usury. When taking out a loan, a borrower would surrender some movable property as collateral to ensure repayment. That “pledge” represented a tangible sign of the debtor’s intention to repay the loan. Certain restrictions applied to such pledges. For example, a creditor could not take a widow’s clothes (Dt 24:17). Tools (such as millstones) or animals (such as oxen) necessary for daily life were forbidden as pledges (v 6). Clothing absolutely essential to the borrower (e.g., to keep warm) could be temporarily offered as a pledge, but the temporary token had to be returned before nightfall (Ex 22:26-27; Dt 24:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In drastic circumstances, where there was no collateral, a debtor could pledge a son, daughter, or slave. The value of the child’s or slave’s labor could then be credited against both interest and principal. An account in the Bible of a widow’s two sons about to go into slavery shows how cruel the custom could be (2 Kgs 4:1-7). Pledging labor or their children’s labor was the only way slaves could pay off a debt when they had to borrow.<\/p>\n<p>A borrower could also have a wealthy friend assume responsibility as a cosigner on a loan and thus become the pledge, or surety. The book of Proverbs cautioned against standing surety for others, however, especially for strangers (Prv 6:1-3; 11:15; 17:18; 22:26; 27:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Sabbatical and Jubilee Years<\/h5>\n<p>Two legal provisions to curb the enslavement of people by long-standing debts were the sabbatical year and the jubilee year. The sabbatical year, or “year of release,” took place every seventh year. At that time debts were canceled and slates wiped clean (Dt 15:1-12; cf. Ex 21:2; 23:10-11; Lv 25:2-7). The law clearly forbade lenders to withhold loans to those in desperate need during a sixth year. Jewish tradition held strict injunctions against a lender trying to collect on a loan that should have been forgiven in the sabbatical year.<\/p>\n<p>Every 50 years Israel had its Year of Jubilee. In that year land reverted to its original owner if it had not already been redeemed by some relative. That provision prevented the buildup of landed estates by the wealthy few while the many poor suffered in slavery (Lv 25:13-17). Although the Mosaic law could not guarantee economic utopia, it sought to curb the greediness in human nature. It also aimed at providing everyone with an equal opportunity and a fresh start every 50 years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DebtintheNewTestament\">Debt in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT shows how various cultures handled the matter of loans and debts. There were Jewish people who adhered strictly to the Mosaic law and refused to charge their fellow Jews high interest. Hellenistic and Roman legal practices, however, penetrated parts of Jewish society.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Parables<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus alluded to non-Jewish economic practices in his parable of a servant who jailed a fellow slave for not repaying a loan (Mt 18:23-35). The parable illustrates the ordinary Hellenistic and Roman custom of jailing or restraining such a person as surety. That practice forced a debtor to sell his property, to ask family and friends to cover the loss, or to sell himself into slavery. The parable of the talents (25:14-28) and the parable of the pounds (Lk 19:12-24), speaking allegorically about the kingdom of God, mention earning interest on money invested with bankers.<\/p>\n<h5>Economic and Theological Instruction<\/h5>\n<p>The apostle Paul instructed Christians to “owe nothing to anyone” (Rom 13:8), which means at the very least that Christians should make good on loans promptly. On the other hand, a Christian’s economic activity should be characterized by kindness toward those in need, generosity, and willingness to help (Mt 5:42; Lk 6:35).<\/p>\n<p>The NT also presents a number of lessons in doctrine based on a figurative use of “debts” and “debtors.” Jesus once referred to sinners (Lk 13:2) with a word literally meaning “debtors” (v 4). In the Lord’s Prayer “debts” is paralleled with “sins” (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sin is seen as an enslavement (Jn 8:34), and all men and women as debtors to God. Redemption can be made only by God, who “gave his only Son” to set people free (3:16-18). The writer to the Hebrews showed that Jesus was made the surety of the new covenant (Heb 7:22).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul felt indebted to all people because of his own salvation, a debt he could pay by preaching the gospel (Rom 1:14-15). The NT teaches that all who receive the gospel are likewise in debt and therefore should devote themselves to serving others as a way of serving God (cf. 15:26-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Money.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEBT<\/h3>\n<p>Something owed to another person, such as goods, property, or money. In the Bible, righteous conduct is something one “owes” to God; hence, in theology, sin is described figuratively as being “in debt.”<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew culture, debt was usually connected with usury (the business of lending money on interest). The Hebrew verbs describing usury picture a painful situation. One word for usury means “to bite,” a vivid image for the way high interest “ate up” any kind of business transaction so that borrowers never received the full value of the money. People could be ruined financially by heartless exaction of interest (2 Kgs 4:1-7). Another verb is usually translated as “increase” or “profit” (Lv 25:37), since lenders profited from others’ labor. Ancient Near Eastern interest rates on produce and goods might be as much as 30 percent of the loan per year; on money, as much as 20 percent. Clay tablets from Nuzi, an ancient town in northeastern Mesopotamia, indicate interest rates of even 50 percent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLawofMoses\">The Law of Moses<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic covenant given to Israel immediately after the exodus sought to eliminate extortionist practices from Hebrew life. Thus God’s revelation had many rules and restrictions relating to debt and credit in Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Protection for the Poor<\/h5>\n<p>Portions of the legislative sections of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) regulated the practice of lending in a way that protected the poor and secured each person’s right to earn a living and support a family. Many popular Hebrew proverbs dealt with that theme. The positive thrust of the biblical laws was to ensure help for the financially needy, without interest. No personal profit was to be made at the expense of the poor (Ex 22:25; Dt 23:19-20); God was their special advocate. Thus, by lending without interest, the Israelites could demonstrate their reverence for God (Lv 25:35-37).<\/p>\n<p>That point was reemphasized 40 years later when Moses renewed the covenant with Israel just before their entrance into the Promised Land. God was the landlord, and his tenants were to respect his word. God promised the Israelites that if they would lend so as to alleviate human misery, they would be unusually blessed by the Lord (Dt 15:6; 23:19-20; 28:12). Interest could be charged to a foreigner not living under the Mosaic law, which was a condition parallel to commercial treaties prevalent in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient Israel, financial ruin was frequently brought about by poor harvests. Often they were taken as an indication that the relationship between God and his people was not right (Lv 26:14, 20). The wealthy were expected to help, not to add more burdens to those who suffered from poor harvests.<\/p>\n<h5>Violation of the Law<\/h5>\n<p>The law was so often violated that eventually exorbitant interest became a social plague, making the situation of debtors hopeless. Many of the fighting men who rallied around David early in his military career were “outlaws” unable to repay their loans and interest (1 Sm 22:2). The prophet Ezekiel called people to task for their failure to observe God’s commands about usury (Ez 18:5-18; 22:12). When Nehemiah returned from the exile to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, he brought charges against the government officials whose interest rates had enslaved the people (Neh 5:6-13).<\/p>\n<p>The Wisdom Literature, which included Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, added that those who acquired riches by usury would not profit in the long run, because God would give their profits to others who looked after the welfare of the poor (e.g., Prv 28:8). The prophet Amos gave a similar warning to corrupt merchants in Israel: “Because you trample upon the poor and take from him exactions of wheat, . . . you have planted pleasant vineyards, but you shall not drink their wine” (Am 5:11, <span>rsv<\/span>). In spite of such warnings, the law was often ignored, and burdensome interest charges were laid on borrowers who were already poor.<\/p>\n<h5>Pledges and Surety<\/h5>\n<p>When it was necessary to borrow, the law provided alternatives to the unfair practice of usury. When taking out a loan, a borrower would surrender some movable property as collateral to ensure repayment. That “pledge” represented a tangible sign of the debtor’s intention to repay the loan. Certain restrictions applied to such pledges. For example, a creditor could not take a widow’s clothes (Dt 24:17). Tools (such as millstones) or animals (such as oxen) necessary for daily life were forbidden as pledges (v 6). Clothing absolutely essential to the borrower (e.g., to keep warm) could be temporarily offered as a pledge, but the temporary token had to be returned before nightfall (Ex 22:26-27; Dt 24:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In drastic circumstances, where there was no collateral, a debtor could pledge a son, daughter, or slave. The value of the child’s or slave’s labor could then be credited against both interest and principal. An account in the Bible of a widow’s two sons about to go into slavery shows how cruel the custom could be (2 Kgs 4:1-7). Pledging labor or their children’s labor was the only way slaves could pay off a debt when they had to borrow.<\/p>\n<p>A borrower could also have a wealthy friend assume responsibility as a cosigner on a loan and thus become the pledge, or surety. The book of Proverbs cautioned against standing surety for others, however, especially for strangers (Prv 6:1-3; 11:15; 17:18; 22:26; 27:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Sabbatical and Jubilee Years<\/h5>\n<p>Two legal provisions to curb the enslavement of people by long-standing debts were the sabbatical year and the jubilee year. The sabbatical year, or “year of release,” took place every seventh year. At that time debts were canceled and slates wiped clean (Dt 15:1-12; cf. Ex 21:2; 23:10-11; Lv 25:2-7). The law clearly forbade lenders to withhold loans to those in desperate need during a sixth year. Jewish tradition held strict injunctions against a lender trying to collect on a loan that should have been forgiven in the sabbatical year.<\/p>\n<p>Every 50 years Israel had its Year of Jubilee. In that year land reverted to its original owner if it had not already been redeemed by some relative. That provision prevented the buildup of landed estates by the wealthy few while the many poor suffered in slavery (Lv 25:13-17). Although the Mosaic law could not guarantee economic utopia, it sought to curb the greediness in human nature. It also aimed at providing everyone with an equal opportunity and a fresh start every 50 years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DebtintheNewTestament\">Debt in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT shows how various cultures handled the matter of loans and debts. There were Jewish people who adhered strictly to the Mosaic law and refused to charge their fellow Jews high interest. Hellenistic and Roman legal practices, however, penetrated parts of Jewish society.<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus’ Parables<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus alluded to non-Jewish economic practices in his parable of a servant who jailed a fellow slave for not repaying a loan (Mt 18:23-35). The parable illustrates the ordinary Hellenistic and Roman custom of jailing or restraining such a person as surety. That practice forced a debtor to sell his property, to ask family and friends to cover the loss, or to sell himself into slavery. The parable of the talents (25:14-28) and the parable of the pounds (Lk 19:12-24), speaking allegorically about the kingdom of God, mention earning interest on money invested with bankers.<\/p>\n<h5>Economic and Theological Instruction<\/h5>\n<p>The apostle Paul instructed Christians to “owe nothing to anyone” (Rom 13:8), which means at the very least that Christians should make good on loans promptly. On the other hand, a Christian’s economic activity should be characterized by kindness toward those in need, generosity, and willingness to help (Mt 5:42; Lk 6:35).<\/p>\n<p>The NT also presents a number of lessons in doctrine based on a figurative use of “debts” and “debtors.” Jesus once referred to sinners (Lk 13:2) with a word literally meaning “debtors” (v 4). In the Lord’s Prayer “debts” is paralleled with “sins” (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sin is seen as an enslavement (Jn 8:34), and all men and women as debtors to God. Redemption can be made only by God, who “gave his only Son” to set people free (3:16-18). The writer to the Hebrews showed that Jesus was made the surety of the new covenant (Heb 7:22).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul felt indebted to all people because of his own salvation, a debt he could pay by preaching the gospel (Rom 1:14-15). The NT teaches that all who receive the gospel are likewise in debt and therefore should devote themselves to serving others as a way of serving God (cf. 15:26-27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Money.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEBT Something owed to another person, such as goods, property, or money. In the Bible, righteous conduct is something one “owes” to God; hence, in theology, sin is described figuratively as being “in debt.” In Hebrew culture, debt was usually connected with usury (the business of lending money on interest). The Hebrew verbs describing usury picture a painful situation. One word for usury means “to bite,” a vivid image for the way high interest “ate up” any kind of business transaction so tha...","summary_en":"DEBT Something owed to another person, such as goods, property, or money. In the Bible, righteous conduct is something one “owes” to God; hence, in theology, sin is described figuratively as being “in debt.” In Hebrew culture, debt was usually connected with usury (the business of lending money on interest). The Hebrew verbs describing usury picture a painful situation. One word for usury means “to bite,” a vivid image for the way high interest “ate up” any kind of business transaction so tha...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45137,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","summary_en":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72763,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","summary_en":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100389,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","summary_en":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128015,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:19-20<\/strong> The word translated <em>interest<\/em> is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","summary_en":"23:19-20 The word translated interest is related to a noun meaning “bite.” Charging interest was to “put the bite” on the debtor. See also Exod 22:25; Lev 25:36-37; Neh 5:1-13; Ps 15:5.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":38079,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Vows Vow","title_en":"Vows Vow","content_ro":"<h3>VOW, VOWS<\/h3>\n<p>Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The command is to “pay,” that is, to keep or fulfill a pledge that has already been made. No order is given to make such promises in the first place. The practice is accepted and regulated but not demanded.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of a vow is to win a desired favor from the Lord, to express gratitude to him for some deliverance or benefit, or simply to prove absolute devotion to him by way of certain abstinences. Dedication of oneself and separation to the Lord were the primary features of the Nazirite vow. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist are the most familiar examples of those who took this type of vow. Numbers 6:1-8 prescribes the conditions of this commitment, and verses 13-21 tell how release from the vow may be obtained. Women, as well as men, might take this vow of separation (v 2), which could be of limited duration. The Recabite clan pledged themselves to an ascetic and nomadic life. They constitute a compelling illustration of loyalty to the God of Israel (Jer 35).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently, however, vows were taken as a type of bargain with God. At Bethel, Jacob promised God worship and the tithe if he would protect him and supply his needs (Gn 28:20-22). Hannah pledged that if God would give her a son, she would return him to God (1 Sm 1:11, 27-28). In the Psalms, payment of vows is often associated with thanksgiving for deliverance from danger or affliction (e.g., Pss 22:24-25; 56:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Most important is that once a vow is made, the obligation is serious. To refrain from making any vow is no sin (Dt 23:22), but once declared, the vow must be kept (Dt 23:21-23; see also Nm 30:2; Eccl 5:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>The term “vow” occurs just twice in the NT, both times in association with the apostle Paul (Acts 18:18; 21:23-24). But the same principle is involved in the case of the word “Corban” (Mk 7:11-13; cf. Mt 15:5-6). In these two passages Jesus severely rebuked those who made a vow that served as a clever escape from meeting obligations to care for aged parents. A monetary figure was involved in such a “gift” or “offering.” But Jesus declared that God did not want a gift designed to deprive someone.<\/p>\n<p>In the case of Paul, he may have entered into his vows for the very purpose of averting objections that either antagonistic Jews or Jewish-Christian believers had to his removing the yoke of Mosaic regulations from the shoulders of gentile believers. Paul was in Jerusalem under the keen surveillance of Jewish authorities. He made it a point to join with four other Jewish believers in the payment of vows in the temple. This action, however, was misconstrued by his enemies, who charged that he was bringing Gentiles into the holy temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Oath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VOW, VOWS<\/h3>\n<p>Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The command is to “pay,” that is, to keep or fulfill a pledge that has already been made. No order is given to make such promises in the first place. The practice is accepted and regulated but not demanded.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of a vow is to win a desired favor from the Lord, to express gratitude to him for some deliverance or benefit, or simply to prove absolute devotion to him by way of certain abstinences. Dedication of oneself and separation to the Lord were the primary features of the Nazirite vow. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist are the most familiar examples of those who took this type of vow. Numbers 6:1-8 prescribes the conditions of this commitment, and verses 13-21 tell how release from the vow may be obtained. Women, as well as men, might take this vow of separation (v 2), which could be of limited duration. The Recabite clan pledged themselves to an ascetic and nomadic life. They constitute a compelling illustration of loyalty to the God of Israel (Jer 35).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently, however, vows were taken as a type of bargain with God. At Bethel, Jacob promised God worship and the tithe if he would protect him and supply his needs (Gn 28:20-22). Hannah pledged that if God would give her a son, she would return him to God (1 Sm 1:11, 27-28). In the Psalms, payment of vows is often associated with thanksgiving for deliverance from danger or affliction (e.g., Pss 22:24-25; 56:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Most important is that once a vow is made, the obligation is serious. To refrain from making any vow is no sin (Dt 23:22), but once declared, the vow must be kept (Dt 23:21-23; see also Nm 30:2; Eccl 5:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>The term “vow” occurs just twice in the NT, both times in association with the apostle Paul (Acts 18:18; 21:23-24). But the same principle is involved in the case of the word “Corban” (Mk 7:11-13; cf. Mt 15:5-6). In these two passages Jesus severely rebuked those who made a vow that served as a clever escape from meeting obligations to care for aged parents. A monetary figure was involved in such a “gift” or “offering.” But Jesus declared that God did not want a gift designed to deprive someone.<\/p>\n<p>In the case of Paul, he may have entered into his vows for the very purpose of averting objections that either antagonistic Jews or Jewish-Christian believers had to his removing the yoke of Mosaic regulations from the shoulders of gentile believers. Paul was in Jerusalem under the keen surveillance of Jewish authorities. He made it a point to join with four other Jewish believers in the payment of vows in the temple. This action, however, was misconstrued by his enemies, who charged that he was bringing Gentiles into the holy temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Oath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"VOW, VOWS Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT. Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (rsv). The com...","summary_en":"VOW, VOWS Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT. Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (rsv). The com...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61106,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88732,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116358,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143984,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Vows to God","title_en":"Vows to God","content_ro":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Vows to God<\/h3>\n<p>The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their requests. Then they would pay or fulfill their vows to God, often by giving offerings (e.g., Lev 7:16; 22:23; Deut 12:11).<\/p>\n<p>However, vows could be abused. The law itself warns against this (Deut 23:21-23), as do the wisdom teachings (e.g., Prov 7:10-14; 20:25) and the books of the prophets (see, e.g., Jer 44:25). Saul was prone both to make foolish vows (1 Sam 14:24-28) and to not keep the vows he made (19:6). Impulsive vows might go unfulfilled and never paid, arousing God’s anger. Not making a vow is better than backing out of one (Eccl 5:3-5). Jesus counsels us not to make vows, but simply to keep our word (Matt 5:33-37; cp. Jas 5:12).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 28:20-22; Num 21:2-3; 30:1-16; Deut 23:18-23; Judg 11:30-40; 1 Sam 1:11, 24-28; 14:24-45; Ps 76:11; Prov 20:25; Eccl 5:3-5; Mal 1:14; Matt 5:33-37; Acts 18:18; 21:23-24; Jas 5:12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","summary_en":"Vows to God The essence of a vow to God is, “If God will do X, then I will dedicate Y” to God or his sanctuary. Examples include Jacob’s tithing (Gen 28:20-22), the Israelites’ dealing with the Canaanite spoils of war (Num 21:2), Hannah’s dedicating her son as a lifelong servant of the Lord (1 Sam 1:11), and Absalom’s sacrificing to God at Hebron (2 Sam 15:8). Guidelines for vows are frequently mentioned in the sacrificial laws. Israelites made vows conditional upon God’s granting their reque...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":38078,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Vows Vow","title_en":"Vows Vow","content_ro":"<h3>VOW, VOWS<\/h3>\n<p>Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The command is to “pay,” that is, to keep or fulfill a pledge that has already been made. No order is given to make such promises in the first place. The practice is accepted and regulated but not demanded.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of a vow is to win a desired favor from the Lord, to express gratitude to him for some deliverance or benefit, or simply to prove absolute devotion to him by way of certain abstinences. Dedication of oneself and separation to the Lord were the primary features of the Nazirite vow. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist are the most familiar examples of those who took this type of vow. Numbers 6:1-8 prescribes the conditions of this commitment, and verses 13-21 tell how release from the vow may be obtained. Women, as well as men, might take this vow of separation (v 2), which could be of limited duration. The Recabite clan pledged themselves to an ascetic and nomadic life. They constitute a compelling illustration of loyalty to the God of Israel (Jer 35).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently, however, vows were taken as a type of bargain with God. At Bethel, Jacob promised God worship and the tithe if he would protect him and supply his needs (Gn 28:20-22). Hannah pledged that if God would give her a son, she would return him to God (1 Sm 1:11, 27-28). In the Psalms, payment of vows is often associated with thanksgiving for deliverance from danger or affliction (e.g., Pss 22:24-25; 56:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Most important is that once a vow is made, the obligation is serious. To refrain from making any vow is no sin (Dt 23:22), but once declared, the vow must be kept (Dt 23:21-23; see also Nm 30:2; Eccl 5:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>The term “vow” occurs just twice in the NT, both times in association with the apostle Paul (Acts 18:18; 21:23-24). But the same principle is involved in the case of the word “Corban” (Mk 7:11-13; cf. Mt 15:5-6). In these two passages Jesus severely rebuked those who made a vow that served as a clever escape from meeting obligations to care for aged parents. A monetary figure was involved in such a “gift” or “offering.” But Jesus declared that God did not want a gift designed to deprive someone.<\/p>\n<p>In the case of Paul, he may have entered into his vows for the very purpose of averting objections that either antagonistic Jews or Jewish-Christian believers had to his removing the yoke of Mosaic regulations from the shoulders of gentile believers. Paul was in Jerusalem under the keen surveillance of Jewish authorities. He made it a point to join with four other Jewish believers in the payment of vows in the temple. This action, however, was misconstrued by his enemies, who charged that he was bringing Gentiles into the holy temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Oath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>VOW, VOWS<\/h3>\n<p>Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The command is to “pay,” that is, to keep or fulfill a pledge that has already been made. No order is given to make such promises in the first place. The practice is accepted and regulated but not demanded.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of a vow is to win a desired favor from the Lord, to express gratitude to him for some deliverance or benefit, or simply to prove absolute devotion to him by way of certain abstinences. Dedication of oneself and separation to the Lord were the primary features of the Nazirite vow. Samson, Samuel, and John the Baptist are the most familiar examples of those who took this type of vow. Numbers 6:1-8 prescribes the conditions of this commitment, and verses 13-21 tell how release from the vow may be obtained. Women, as well as men, might take this vow of separation (v 2), which could be of limited duration. The Recabite clan pledged themselves to an ascetic and nomadic life. They constitute a compelling illustration of loyalty to the God of Israel (Jer 35).<\/p>\n<p>Frequently, however, vows were taken as a type of bargain with God. At Bethel, Jacob promised God worship and the tithe if he would protect him and supply his needs (Gn 28:20-22). Hannah pledged that if God would give her a son, she would return him to God (1 Sm 1:11, 27-28). In the Psalms, payment of vows is often associated with thanksgiving for deliverance from danger or affliction (e.g., Pss 22:24-25; 56:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Most important is that once a vow is made, the obligation is serious. To refrain from making any vow is no sin (Dt 23:22), but once declared, the vow must be kept (Dt 23:21-23; see also Nm 30:2; Eccl 5:4-6).<\/p>\n<p>The term “vow” occurs just twice in the NT, both times in association with the apostle Paul (Acts 18:18; 21:23-24). But the same principle is involved in the case of the word “Corban” (Mk 7:11-13; cf. Mt 15:5-6). In these two passages Jesus severely rebuked those who made a vow that served as a clever escape from meeting obligations to care for aged parents. A monetary figure was involved in such a “gift” or “offering.” But Jesus declared that God did not want a gift designed to deprive someone.<\/p>\n<p>In the case of Paul, he may have entered into his vows for the very purpose of averting objections that either antagonistic Jews or Jewish-Christian believers had to his removing the yoke of Mosaic regulations from the shoulders of gentile believers. Paul was in Jerusalem under the keen surveillance of Jewish authorities. He made it a point to join with four other Jewish believers in the payment of vows in the temple. This action, however, was misconstrued by his enemies, who charged that he was bringing Gentiles into the holy temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Covenant; Oath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"VOW, VOWS Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT. Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (rsv). The com...","summary_en":"VOW, VOWS Serious promises or pledges made to God. The making of vows to God is a religious practice frequently mentioned in Scripture. Most references to vows are found in the OT, especially in the Psalms, but there are a few in the NT. Unlike tithing, sacrifices and offerings, Sabbath keeping, and circumcision, vow making was not something commanded by the Mosaic law. For example, Psalm 50:14 says, “Offer to God a sacrifice of thanksgiving, and pay your vows to the Most High” (rsv). The com...","source":"Articles\/V.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":45138,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:24","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","summary_en":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72764,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:24","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","summary_en":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100390,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:24","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","summary_en":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128016,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 23:24","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 23:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>23:24<\/strong> <em>your neighbor’s vineyard:<\/em> In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:1-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","summary_en":"23:24 your neighbor’s vineyard: In a certain sense, God owned all the land and provided it to its human occupants. Therefore, no one had the right to make an exclusive claim to it. On the other hand, renters had rights to privacy and to a measure of control over what had been allotted to them. Trespassing was permitted within this context but not with the intention of theft. One could, however, pluck a few grapes or kernels of grain to eat along the way (see Matt 12:1-8; Mark 2:23-28; Luke 6:...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Deuteronom 23
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