Deuteronom 26
1 Când vei intra în ţara pe care ţi-o dă de moştenire Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, când o vei stăpâni şi te vei aşeza în ea,
2 să iei cele dintâi roade din toate rodurile pe cari le vei scoate din pământ, în ţara pe care ţi-o dă Domnul Dumnezeul tău, să le pui într-un coş, şi să te duci la locul pe care-l va alege Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, ca să facă să locuiască Numele Lui acolo.
3 Să te duci la preotul care va fi în zilele acelea, şi să-i spui: ,,Mărturisesc astăzi înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, că am intrat în ţara pe care Domnul a jurat părinţilor noştri că ne-o va da.``
4 Preotul să ia coşul din mâna ta, şi să-l pună înaintea altarului Domnului, Dumnezeului tău.
5 Apoi să iei iarăş cuvântul, şi să spui înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului tău: ,,Tatăl meu era un Arameu pribeag, gata să piară; s-a pogorât în Egipt cu puţini inşi, şi s-a aşezat acolo pentru o vreme. Acolo, a ajuns un neam mare, puternic şi mare la număr.
6 Egiptenii ne-au chinuit, ne-au asuprit, şi ne-au supus la grea robie.
7 Noi am strigat către Domnul, Dumnezeul părinţilor noştri. Domnul ne-a auzit glasul, şi a văzut asuprirea, chinurile şi necazurile noastre.
8 Şi Domnul ne-a scos din Egipt, cu mână tare şi cu braţ întins, cu arătări înfricoşătoare, cu semne şi minuni.
9 El ne-a adus în locul acesta, şi ne-a dat ţara aceasta, ţară în care curge lapte şi miere.
10 Acum iată, aduc cele dintâi roade din rodurile pământului pe care mi l-ai dat Tu, Doamne!`` Să le pui înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, şi să te închini înaintea Domnului Dumnezeului tău.
11 Apoi să te bucuri, cu Levitul şi cu străinul care va fi în mijlocul tău, de toate bunurile pe cari ţi le-a dat Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, ţie şi casei tale.
12 După ce vei isprăvi de luat toată zeciuiala din rodurile tale, în anul al treilea, anul zeciuielii, s-o dai Levitului, străinului, orfanului şi văduvei; şi ei să mănânce şi să se sature, în cetăţile tale.
13 Să spui înaintea Domnului, Dumnezeului tău: ,,Am scos din casa mea ce este sfinţit, şi l-am dat Levitului, străinului, orfanului şi văduvei, după toate poruncile pe cari mi le-ai dat Tu; n-am călcat, nici n-am uitat niciuna din poruncile Tale.
14 N-am mâncat nimic din aceste lucruri în timpul meu de jale, n-am îndepărtat nimic din ele pentru vre o întrebuinţare necurată, şi n-am dat nimic din ele cu prilejul unui mort; am ascultat de glasul Domnului, Dumnezeului meu, am lucrat după toate poruncile pe cari mi le-ai dat.
15 Priveşte din locaşul Tău cel sfânt, din ceruri, şi binecuvintează pe poporul Tău Israel, şi ţara pe care ne-ai dat-o, cum ai jurat părinţilor noştri, ţara aceasta în care curge lapte şi miere.``
16 Astăzi, Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, îţi porunceşte să împlineşti legile şi poruncile acestea; să le păzeşti şi să le împlineşti din toată inima ta şi din tot sufletul tău.
17 Astăzi, tu ai mărturisit înaintea Domnului că El va fi Dumnezeul tău, că vei umbla în căile Lui, vei păzi legile, poruncile şi rânduielile Lui, şi vei asculta de glasul Lui.
18 Şi azi, Domnul ţi-a mărturisit că vei fi un popor al Lui, cum ţi-a spus, dacă vei păzi toate poruncile Lui,
19 şi îţi va da asupra tuturor neamurilor pe cari le-a făcut: întâietate în slavă, în faimă şi în măreţie, şi vei fi un popor sfânt pentru Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, cum ţi-a spus.``
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":9449,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Deuteronomy","title_en":"Book of Deuteronomy","content_ro":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","summary_en":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12188,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12345,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Firstfruits","title_en":"Firstfruits","content_ro":"<h3>FIRSTFRUITS<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them.<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned were to be treated as belonging to God. The firstborn children and the firstborn of the unclean animals were “redeemed” (paid for) with money by the offerer, and the firstborn of the cows, sheep, and goats were offered in sacrifice to God (Nm 18:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruits of any kind were reserved for those whom God designated, namely, the priests. At least three times “the first of the firstfruits” is mentioned in the OT. This may be a reference to the first ripened of the firstfruits, or it may refer to the choicest of them. These offerings were especially designated for the priests and could be eaten by any of them who was ritually clean (Nm 18:12-13). For other references to the firstfruits, see Exodus 23:15-19; 34:22, 26; Leviticus 2:14; 23:10-17; Numbers 15:20-21; 28:26-31; and Deuteronomy 26:1-11.<\/p>\n<p>The firstfruits were presented to God by bringing the offering to the priest at the tabernacle and, in later times, at the temple (Dt 26:2). The priest took the offering, and on the first day of the week, with arms outstretched, waved it before the Lord. On the same day, the person presenting the firstfruits offered a male lamb as a burnt offering to the Lord, a grain offering of fine flour mixed with olive oil, and a drink offering of wine. Fifty days later another grain offering was to be made. Each family was to give two loaves of bread to the Lord as a special gift. These were also given with appropriate animal, grain, and drink offerings (Lv 23:9-22).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul referred to Jesus Christ’s resurrection as the firstfruits of the resurrection of believers that will occur at Jesus’ return (1 Cor 15:20, 23). The Holy Spirit, who indwells all believers (Rom 8:9), is also said to be the firstfruits of the full redemption that is yet to come. “Firstfruits” is sometimes used of the first believers in a geographical area (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15). They were a kind of promise of a spiritual harvest to follow in that particular locality.<\/p>\n<p>Christian believers are said to be firstfruits, referring to their being a unique and sacred possession of God out of all he has created (Jas 1:18). Similarly, in the book of Revelation the 144,000 are said to have been redeemed from humanity as firstfruits belonging to God and to the Lamb, Jesus Christ (Rv 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FIRSTFRUITS<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them.<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned were to be treated as belonging to God. The firstborn children and the firstborn of the unclean animals were “redeemed” (paid for) with money by the offerer, and the firstborn of the cows, sheep, and goats were offered in sacrifice to God (Nm 18:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruits of any kind were reserved for those whom God designated, namely, the priests. At least three times “the first of the firstfruits” is mentioned in the OT. This may be a reference to the first ripened of the firstfruits, or it may refer to the choicest of them. These offerings were especially designated for the priests and could be eaten by any of them who was ritually clean (Nm 18:12-13). For other references to the firstfruits, see Exodus 23:15-19; 34:22, 26; Leviticus 2:14; 23:10-17; Numbers 15:20-21; 28:26-31; and Deuteronomy 26:1-11.<\/p>\n<p>The firstfruits were presented to God by bringing the offering to the priest at the tabernacle and, in later times, at the temple (Dt 26:2). The priest took the offering, and on the first day of the week, with arms outstretched, waved it before the Lord. On the same day, the person presenting the firstfruits offered a male lamb as a burnt offering to the Lord, a grain offering of fine flour mixed with olive oil, and a drink offering of wine. Fifty days later another grain offering was to be made. Each family was to give two loaves of bread to the Lord as a special gift. These were also given with appropriate animal, grain, and drink offerings (Lv 23:9-22).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul referred to Jesus Christ’s resurrection as the firstfruits of the resurrection of believers that will occur at Jesus’ return (1 Cor 15:20, 23). The Holy Spirit, who indwells all believers (Rom 8:9), is also said to be the firstfruits of the full redemption that is yet to come. “Firstfruits” is sometimes used of the first believers in a geographical area (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15). They were a kind of promise of a spiritual harvest to follow in that particular locality.<\/p>\n<p>Christian believers are said to be firstfruits, referring to their being a unique and sacred possession of God out of all he has created (Jas 1:18). Similarly, in the book of Revelation the 144,000 are said to have been redeemed from humanity as firstfruits belonging to God and to the Lamb, Jesus Christ (Rv 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FIRSTFRUITS Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them. Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned we...","summary_en":"FIRSTFRUITS Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them. Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned we...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31121,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prayer","title_en":"Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAYER<\/h3>\n<p>The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a long process of change and development in God’s relation to people, as a survey of the biblical data shows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheOldTestament\">Prayer in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Newly created humans, made for fellowship with God, lived in close communion with him. Sin broke this intimate, direct relationship. Nevertheless, when the Lord formed his covenant with Abraham (Gn 15), the relationship between the covenant partners was open again. Abraham’s prayer for Sodom and Gomorrah (ch 18) is a striking combination of boldness and persistence and is a recognition of his own smallness and inferiority compared to God. The same could be said about Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at Peniel (ch 32). But boldness and directness are not to be confused with familiarity. Biblical prayer is characterized by the reality that there is a distance between the Creator and the creature due to human sin, bridged only by God’s grace. The basis of a person’s approach to God in prayer is never simply “man’s search for God” but God’s gracious initiative, the establishing of the covenant, and the promise of help and deliverance on the basis of that covenant. It is this covenant relationship that gives the <em>warrant<\/em> for prayer. Thus, in patriarchal times prayer was conjoined with sacrifice and obedience.<\/p>\n<p>The reestablishing of the national consciousness of Israel at the time of their deliverance from Egypt marks another phase in the biblical development. Moses was not only the political leader of Israel but also their divinely appointed mediator and intercessor with the Lord. Repeatedly he “pleads the name of the Lord” in the face of the human uncertainties of the wilderness journey and his own people’s unbelief and disobedience. Pleading the name of the Lord is not to be thought of as an incantation but as a reminder to God of who he has revealed himself to be. (God’s revelation of himself to Moses at the burning bush is fundamental to an understanding of this.) In this revelation of himself, God made promises to his people, and in prayer Moses held God to these promises. Moses was by no means the only intercessor. Aaron, Samuel, Solomon, and Hezekiah were among those who interceded for the people.<\/p>\n<p>With the formation of the priesthood and the establishment of the ritual worship of the tabernacle and later the temple, the worship of God seems to be characterized by distance. There is little indication that the people personally prayed to God, and—with the exception of Deuteronomy 26:1-15—there is nothing about prayer in all the instructions for worship given to the people. However, there is indication in the psalms that sacrifice and prayer would be coupled together (Pss 50:7-15; 55:14). Many of the psalms are remarkable for the way in which personal perplexities are acknowledged, leading to “arguments with God” and an ultimate resolution of the conflict (e.g., Ps 73).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were men who prayed, and it seems that God’s Word came to them in prayer (Is 6:5-13; 37:1-4; Jer 11:20-23). Jeremiah’s ministry was characterized by times of conflict in prayer (Jer 18:19-23; 20:7-18) as well as more settled times of fellowship with God (10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9; 15:15-18). At the exile, with the establishment of the synagogue, corporate prayer became an element in Jewish worship. After the exile there was an emphasis on spontaneity in prayer and on the need for devotion to be more than mechanical and routine (Neh 2:4; 4:4, 9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrayerintheNewTestament\">Prayer in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s teaching on prayer is dominated by Christ’s own example and teaching. His dependence on his Father in his mediatorial work expresses itself in repeated prayer, culminating in his High Priestly prayer (Jn 17) and the agony of Gethsemane with the prayer from the cross. His teaching on prayer, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount, is to be understood as contrasting with the Jewish practices at that time, not with OT ideals. Prayer is an expression of sincere desire. It is not to inform God of matters that he would otherwise be ignorant of, and the validity of prayer is not affected by length or repetitiveness. Private prayer is to be discreet and secret (Mt 6:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The parables are another important source of Christ’s teaching, emphasizing persistence in prayer (Lk 18:1-8), simplicity and humility (vv 10-14), and tenacity (11:5-8). A third source of teaching is the Lord’s Prayer. Once again there is the blend of directness (“Our Father”) and distance (“who art in heaven. Hallowed be thy name”). The requests given in the Lord’s Prayer are concerned first with God, his kingdom and his glory, and then with the disciples’ needs for forgiveness and for daily support and deliverance. Occasionally, it seems from our Lord’s teaching that anything that is prayed for will, without restriction, be granted. But such teaching ought to be understood in the light of Christ’s overall teaching about prayer (“Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven”).<\/p>\n<p>Christ stated that when the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, came, the disciples would pray to the Father in the name of Christ (Jn 16:23-25). Accordingly, we find that after the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost, the early church is characterized by prayer (Acts 2:42) under the leadership of the apostles (6:4). The church praises God for the gift of his Son and his Spirit, and petitions God in times of difficulty (4:24; 12:5, 12).<\/p>\n<p>It is in Paul’s writings that the theology of prayer is most fully developed. The NT believer is a son, not only a servant. The Spirit who, as a result of Christ’s triumph, has come to the church is the Spirit of adoption, enabling the Christian to come to God as his Father, with all his needs. Prominent among these needs, in the mind of the apostle, are a deepening of faith in Christ, love for God, and a growing appreciation of God’s love in turn (Eph 3:14-19). Prayer is a part of the Christian’s armor against satanic attack (6:18), the effective ministry of the Word of God depends on the prayers of God’s people (vv 18-19), and the Christian is encouraged to pray for all sorts of things, with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6), and so to be free from anxiety. Paul’s own example in prayer is as instructive as the teaching he gives.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian’s prayer is rooted, objectively, in Christ’s intercession; subjectively, in the enabling of the Holy Spirit. The church is a kingdom of priests, offering spiritual sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving (Heb 13:15; 1 Pt 2:5), but Christ is the “great High Priest.” This thought is developed fully in Hebrews. Because of Christ’s human sympathy, the power of his intercessory work (i.e., the triumph of his atonement), and his superiority over the old Aaronic priesthood, the church is encouraged to come to God boldly, to find grace when it is needed (Heb 4:14-16; 9:24; 10:19-23). Nowhere in either the OT or NT is there any encouragement to pray to individuals other than God. Nowhere in Scripture is it suggested that there is any other mediator between God and men except Christ (1 Tm 2:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheElementsofPrayer\">The Elements of Prayer<\/p>\n<p>Although prayer is, typically, an unself-conscious activity in which the person praying devotes himself to God, it is possible to distinguish various elements in prayer, as will be apparent from the discussion of the biblical data. <em>Praise<\/em> involves the recognition of who God is and what he does. It is “giving God the glory,” not in the sense of adding to his glory, which would be impossible, but of willingly (and where appropriate, publicly) recognizing God as God. Typical expressions of such praise are to be found in the psalms (Pss 148; 150). When the recognition of God’s goodness is in respect to what he has done for the one who prays, or for others, then the prayer is one of <em>thanksgiving,<\/em> for life itself, for the use and beauty of the physical universe, for Christ and his benefits (see 2 Cor 9:15), and for specific answers to prayer. <em>Confession<\/em> of sin recognizes the holiness of God and his supreme moral authority, together with the personal responsibility of the one making the confession. Confession thus involves the vindicating or justifying of God and an explicit and unreserved recognition of sin, both as it takes its rise in sinful motives and dispositions and as it finds outward expression. Psalm 51, David’s confession of sin regarding Bathsheba, is the classic biblical instance of a prayer of confession. <em>Petition<\/em> can be thought of as it concerns the one praying, and also as it concerns others, when it is <em>intercession.<\/em> Scripture never regards prayer for oneself as sinful or ethically improper, as can be seen from the pattern of prayer given in the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer for others is an obvious expression of love for one’s neighbor, which is fundamental to biblical ethics.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lord’s Prayer, The; Praise; Worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","summary_en":"PRAYER The addressing and petitioning of God. Prayer to a god or gods is a feature of many, if not all, religions, but here attention will be restricted to the biblical teaching and some of its implications. A classic definition of Christian prayer is “an offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name of Christ, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies” (Westminster Shorter Catechism). Christian prayer is the end product of a ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","summary_en":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72781,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","summary_en":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100407,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","summary_en":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128033,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:1-15<\/strong> Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","summary_en":"26:1-15 Under the terms of the covenant, the Great King required that his subjects render him tribute annually or even more frequently. Since Israel was an agrarian society, God required offerings of animal, vegetable, or grain products. This tribute specifically celebrated the mighty Exodus redemption.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61559,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89185,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116811,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144437,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\n<p>From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\n<p>When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>There is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":12346,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Firstfruits","title_en":"Firstfruits","content_ro":"<h3>FIRSTFRUITS<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them.<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned were to be treated as belonging to God. The firstborn children and the firstborn of the unclean animals were “redeemed” (paid for) with money by the offerer, and the firstborn of the cows, sheep, and goats were offered in sacrifice to God (Nm 18:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruits of any kind were reserved for those whom God designated, namely, the priests. At least three times “the first of the firstfruits” is mentioned in the OT. This may be a reference to the first ripened of the firstfruits, or it may refer to the choicest of them. These offerings were especially designated for the priests and could be eaten by any of them who was ritually clean (Nm 18:12-13). For other references to the firstfruits, see Exodus 23:15-19; 34:22, 26; Leviticus 2:14; 23:10-17; Numbers 15:20-21; 28:26-31; and Deuteronomy 26:1-11.<\/p>\n<p>The firstfruits were presented to God by bringing the offering to the priest at the tabernacle and, in later times, at the temple (Dt 26:2). The priest took the offering, and on the first day of the week, with arms outstretched, waved it before the Lord. On the same day, the person presenting the firstfruits offered a male lamb as a burnt offering to the Lord, a grain offering of fine flour mixed with olive oil, and a drink offering of wine. Fifty days later another grain offering was to be made. Each family was to give two loaves of bread to the Lord as a special gift. These were also given with appropriate animal, grain, and drink offerings (Lv 23:9-22).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul referred to Jesus Christ’s resurrection as the firstfruits of the resurrection of believers that will occur at Jesus’ return (1 Cor 15:20, 23). The Holy Spirit, who indwells all believers (Rom 8:9), is also said to be the firstfruits of the full redemption that is yet to come. “Firstfruits” is sometimes used of the first believers in a geographical area (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15). They were a kind of promise of a spiritual harvest to follow in that particular locality.<\/p>\n<p>Christian believers are said to be firstfruits, referring to their being a unique and sacred possession of God out of all he has created (Jas 1:18). Similarly, in the book of Revelation the 144,000 are said to have been redeemed from humanity as firstfruits belonging to God and to the Lamb, Jesus Christ (Rv 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FIRSTFRUITS<\/h3>\n<p>Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them.<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned were to be treated as belonging to God. The firstborn children and the firstborn of the unclean animals were “redeemed” (paid for) with money by the offerer, and the firstborn of the cows, sheep, and goats were offered in sacrifice to God (Nm 18:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Firstfruits of any kind were reserved for those whom God designated, namely, the priests. At least three times “the first of the firstfruits” is mentioned in the OT. This may be a reference to the first ripened of the firstfruits, or it may refer to the choicest of them. These offerings were especially designated for the priests and could be eaten by any of them who was ritually clean (Nm 18:12-13). For other references to the firstfruits, see Exodus 23:15-19; 34:22, 26; Leviticus 2:14; 23:10-17; Numbers 15:20-21; 28:26-31; and Deuteronomy 26:1-11.<\/p>\n<p>The firstfruits were presented to God by bringing the offering to the priest at the tabernacle and, in later times, at the temple (Dt 26:2). The priest took the offering, and on the first day of the week, with arms outstretched, waved it before the Lord. On the same day, the person presenting the firstfruits offered a male lamb as a burnt offering to the Lord, a grain offering of fine flour mixed with olive oil, and a drink offering of wine. Fifty days later another grain offering was to be made. Each family was to give two loaves of bread to the Lord as a special gift. These were also given with appropriate animal, grain, and drink offerings (Lv 23:9-22).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul referred to Jesus Christ’s resurrection as the firstfruits of the resurrection of believers that will occur at Jesus’ return (1 Cor 15:20, 23). The Holy Spirit, who indwells all believers (Rom 8:9), is also said to be the firstfruits of the full redemption that is yet to come. “Firstfruits” is sometimes used of the first believers in a geographical area (Rom 16:5; 1 Cor 16:15). They were a kind of promise of a spiritual harvest to follow in that particular locality.<\/p>\n<p>Christian believers are said to be firstfruits, referring to their being a unique and sacred possession of God out of all he has created (Jas 1:18). Similarly, in the book of Revelation the 144,000 are said to have been redeemed from humanity as firstfruits belonging to God and to the Lamb, Jesus Christ (Rv 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FIRSTFRUITS Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them. Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned we...","summary_en":"FIRSTFRUITS Firstborn child or animal or first parts of any crop that, in Hebrew thought, were considered as holy and therefore belonged to the Lord. The firstfruits, as a foretaste of more to come, were offered to God in thanksgiving for his goodness in providing them. Firstfruit offerings could include produce either in its natural state or prepared or processed in some way, such as dough, bread, wine, olive oil, and wool. The firstborn son and the firstborn of the animals that one owned we...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22799,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":40893,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41589,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68519,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69215,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96145,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96841,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123771,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jacob","title_en":"Jacob","content_ro":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jacob<\/h3>\n<p>Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23).<\/p>\n<p>Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). Some time later, Isaac asked Esau to prepare wild game so he could eat and bless him (Gen 27:1-4; cp. 25:28). But Rebekah sent Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him instead, and her ploy was successful (27:5-29). Jacob’s ruse was soon discovered (27:30-35), but legally, valid blessings were irrevocable promises (27:33). So Isaac gave Esau a lesser blessing (27:36-40), and Esau plotted to kill Jacob (27:41). Rebekah convinced Isaac to send Jacob away to her brother Laban so that Jacob would marry among relatives (27:42-46).<\/p>\n<p>So Isaac transferred the covenant promises to Jacob and sent him to Haran (28:1-5). Along the way, God appeared to Jacob in a dream and affirmed the promises of land and descendants that he had given to Abraham and Isaac (28:10-15). Jacob worshiped the Lord and named the place Bethel (“house of God”).<\/p>\n<p>At Haran, Jacob began to serve his uncle Laban (Gen 29–31). Jacob loved Laban’s daughter Rachel and worked seven years to marry her, but Laban deceived him by substituting his older daughter Leah on Jacob’s wedding night. Jacob worked seven more years for Rachel and an additional six years to acquire flocks for himself (30:25-43; see also 31:38-42). Despite many hardships, he had thirteen children and became very prosperous.<\/p>\n<p>After twenty years, God told Jacob to return to Canaan (31:3). Fearing reprisals from Laban and his sons (31:1-2), Jacob organized his caravan and left while Laban was away (31:4-21). Laban gave chase, but God prevented him from harming Jacob (31:22-24, 29). Laban instead upbraided Jacob for leaving stealthily and for stealing his idols (31:25-30). Jacob let Laban search his tents, but the idols were not found (31:33-35), and Jacob became angry (31:36-42). Though their conflict remained unresolved, the two men made a peace covenant (31:43-54); the location formed a lasting boundary between Israel and Aram.<\/p>\n<p>Jacob now faced Esau and God. When Esau came to meet him with four hundred men, Jacob sought God’s protection and sent gifts to pacify his estranged brother (32:3-21). Meanwhile, that night, in an event that symbolized his whole life, Jacob wrestled with a man who dislocated his hip and gave him the blessing he sought (32:22-32). God also changed his name to Israel (“God fights”).<\/p>\n<p>In the morning Jacob met Esau and the two were reconciled (33:1-11); Esau was gracious and forgiving, and Jacob shared some of his blessing. Esau then returned to Seir while Jacob continued to Canaan. In Shechem, Jacob bought land and built an altar (33:18-20), then moved to Bethel and expelled all foreign idols from his household (35:1-8). God reaffirmed Jacob’s new name, Israel, and renewed his promises of land and descendants (35:9-15).<\/p>\n<p>Jacob’s favoritism for Rachel extended to her son Joseph (37:1-3). Joseph's brothers became filled with jealousy and hatred toward Joseph—further fueled by Joseph's dreams (37:4-11)—and they sold him as a slave (37:12-28). For over twenty years Jacob believed Joseph was dead. Only after letting Benjamin go to Egypt in Judah’s care did Jacob learn that Joseph was alive and would be the source of famine relief for his family (43:1-14; 45:24-28). Jacob’s spirits revived, and he moved to Egypt and joyously reunited with his favorite son at Goshen (46:28-30), where he prospered for seventeen more years.<\/p>\n<p>When Jacob approached death at age 147, he arranged for the future of his family. He made Joseph swear to bury him in Canaan (47:29-31; 49:29-32). He gave Joseph’s sons his prime blessing (48:1-20) and put Ephraim, the younger son, first. He gave assurance that the family would return to Canaan (48:21-22), then blessed each of his sons and prophesied the future of their descendants (49:1-28). He died and was buried at the cave of Machpelah, accompanied by his sons and a large Egyptian procession (49:33–50:13). His death marked the end of the patriarchal age and the beginning of Israel’s growth as a nation in Egypt until they returned to live again in the Promised Land (see Exodus—Joshua).<\/p>\n<p>The name “Jacob” became synonymous with the nation of Israel (see Num 23:7, 21; 24:5; Hos 12:2). God called the nation to serve him as their forefathers had done (Hos 12:3-14). He promised Israel the same love that he had shown toward Jacob (Mal 1:2). And he promised that a conquering ruler would come from Jacob’s descendants (Gen 49:8-12; Num 24:17-19).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 25:19-34; 27:1–35:29; 37:1-35; 42:1-4, 29-38; 43:1-13; 45:25–50:14; Exod 1:1-5; Num 23:7-10, 20-23; 24:5-9, 17-19; Deut 26:5; Josh 24:4, 32; Hos 12:2-14; Mal 1:2; John 4:5-6, 12; Acts 7:8-16; Rom 9:10-13; Heb 11:8-9, 20-21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","summary_en":"Jacob Jacob, the younger twin son of Isaac and Rebekah, struggled with his twin brother Esau in the womb and was born grasping Esau’s heel (Gen 25:21-26). God told Rebekah that the boys represented two nations and that the older son would serve the younger (Gen. 25:23). Isaac favored Esau, an outdoorsman; Rebekah preferred Jacob, who was happier at home. Once, Esau returned famished from hunting and Jacob bought his birthright with some red stew he had cooked (Gen 25:27-34; see Heb 12:16). So...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124467,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Arameans","title_en":"Arameans","content_ro":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Arameans<\/h3>\n<p>The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread out to the east, west, and north. By around 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan. They set up a number of powerful Aramean city-states, including Zobah and Damascus, that came into conflict with the Israelites beginning in the time of David (see 2 Sam 8:3-8; 10:6-25).<\/p>\n<p>After Solomon’s death and the division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms, Aramean Damascus became a powerful and opportunistic player in the political struggles between the two states. When war broke out between Israel and Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>, King Asa of Israel sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18-19). Roughly thirty years later, in the early 850s <span>BC<\/span>, Ben-hadad invaded Israel, but Ahab defeated him both at Samaria (20:1-21) and at Aphek the following year (20:22-34). After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again in 853 <span>BC<\/span>, resulting in the battle in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aramean Damascus continued to inflict losses on the kingdom of Israel for the next several decades (see 2 Kgs 8:28-29; 12:17-18; 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>During this period, the Aramean city-states began feeling pressure from Assyria. Damascus was first defeated by Assyria around 838 <span>BC<\/span> and was forced to become a tribute-paying vassal of Assyria in 803 <span>BC<\/span>. The resulting weakness of Damascus helped enable Jehoash (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>) to defeat the Arameans and expel them from Israel’s territory around 795 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 13:14-25). Later, Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to force Damascus to pay tribute to him (see 2 Kgs 14:28).<\/p>\n<p>Around 738 <span>BC<\/span> the Arameans of Damascus joined forces with Israel to subjugate Judah. They captured much land, but their siege of Jerusalem was unsuccessful (2 Kgs 16:5; see also 2 Chr 28:5). At this time of seeming success for Damascus, the prophets Isaiah and Amos predicted the city’s doom (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:3-5). But rather than trust in God, King Ahaz of Judah turned to the Assyrians for protection, who responded to his gifts by sacking Damascus and exiling its population in 733\/732 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 16:7-11). Damascus was no longer an independent city-state.<\/p>\n<p>The language of the Arameans, Aramaic, eventually became the language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East (see, e.g., 2 Kgs 18:26). During the Exile, the Jews adopted the Aramaic language; portions of Ezra and Daniel are written in Aramaic. Aramaic was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> from Egypt to India during the Persian period and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day (see Mark 5:41; 1 Cor 16:22).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 10:22-23; 22:20-21; 25:20; 28:1-7; Deut 26:5; 2 Sam 8:3-4; 10:17-19; 1 Kgs 15:18; 1 Kgs 20:1-34; 22:29-37; 2 Kgs 13:25; 16:9-13; 17:24-34; Hos 12:12; Amos 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","summary_en":"Arameans The Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem (Gen 10:22-23; cp. Gen 22:20-21). Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gen 25:20; 28:1-7). Jacob lived for some twenty years with them in Aramean territory (Gen 28–31; Hos 12:12), and the people of Israel remembered that their forefathers were (at least culturally) Arameans (Deut 26:5). When the Arameans emerged into history around the time of Abraham, they were settled around the central Euphrates, from which they spread ou...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27039,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nations","title_en":"Nations","content_ro":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","summary_en":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36555,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Syrians Syria","title_en":"Syrians Syria","content_ro":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SYRIA, SYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryoftheArameans\">History of the Arameans<\/p>\n<p>According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they were to go back to their original home. The precise origins of this group of people are, however, lost in antiquity. When they emerged clearly into history, they were settled around the central Euphrates from which they were spread out east, west, and north.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans were traditionally thought to have been established in upper Mesopotamia in the first part of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Bethuel and Laban were known as Arameans (Gn 25:20; 28:1-7); the home of Bethuel was in Paddan-aram (25:20). The prophet Hosea recalls the tradition by noting that Jacob fled to “the field of Aram” (Hos 12:12) or “Aram-naharaim” (Aram of the two rivers), which was the northern part of Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. In the creedal confession in Deuteronomy 26:5, the Israelite who brought his firstfruits confessed, “My father [probably Jacob] was a wandering Aramean.”<\/p>\n<p>Probably the best early evidence of an Aramean presence in this area comes from Tiglath-pileser I. In his annals of his fourth year (1112 <span>BC<\/span>), he speaks of a campaign among the “Akhlama, Arameans” in the Middle Euphrates area and the sacking of six Aramean villages in the Mt Bishri area.<\/p>\n<p>The Arameans of upper Mesopotamia became important in biblical history. They set up a number of separate Aramean states, two of which were especially important for the people of Israel—Aram-zobah in the days of David, and Aram-damascus from the days of Solomon onward.<\/p>\n<p>By about 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, the Aramean tribes had spread throughout Syria and had expanded into northern Transjordan, where they came into conflict with the Israelites. At his peak Hadadezer, king of Aram-zobah, embraced several vassals, such as Damascus, Maacah, and Tob. He was eventually defeated by King David (2 Sm 8:3-4; 10:17-19).<\/p>\n<p>Events in Israel and Judah had some bearing on Damascus. After the death of Solomon, when the formerly united kingdom became divided into Judah and Israel, tension arose between the two small states. War broke out between Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah in the years 890–880 <span>BC<\/span>. Asa sought aid from Ben-hadad I of Damascus (1 Kgs 15:18). Lands in Transjordan changed hands several times. The successors of Omri of Israel—namely Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash—had many conflicts with Damascus. Ahab fought Ben-hadad and his 32 allies who besieged Samaria (20:1), but Israel defeated him. A second time Ben-hadad entered Israelite territory and reached Aphek (20:26), but he was again defeated and captured. As a consequence of his defeat and for the price of his release, he was obliged to make bazaars available in Damascus for Israelite trade. After three years of peace between Israel and Damascus, hostilities broke out again and resulted in a battle in the region of Ramoth-gilead in which Ahab was killed (22:29-37). Aram-damascus was eventually defeated by King Jehoash of Israel (2 Kgs 13:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SyriaaftertheCollapseoftheArameanKingdoms\">Syria after the Collapse of the Aramean Kingdoms<\/p>\n<p>After the collapse of Aram-damascus in 733–732 <span>BC<\/span>, the political character of the whole region changed. Over the centuries that followed and on into Christian times, the region passed under the control of several great powers and no independent Aramean state survived. When Assyria collapsed in 612–609 <span>BC<\/span>, the region came under Babylonian control, but only for a comparatively short period. With the rise of Cyrus the Persian, the Syrian region was quickly overrun by Persian armies. Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt were absorbed into the Persian Empire at the same time.<\/p>\n<p>The next significant political change that affected the region came with the appearance of Philip of Macedon in 360 <span>BC<\/span>. His son Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>) consolidated Greek power throughout western Asia and as far as the borders of India. On his death in 323 <span>BC<\/span>, at the age of 33, the control of western Asia passed to Alexander’s generals. General Seleucus I (312–280 <span>BC<\/span>) controlled the southern half of Asia Minor, the region of Syria, Mesopotamia, and eastward to the borders of India. Syria thus fell under the influence of Hellenist rulers, the Seleucids, who founded a new capital at Antioch.<\/p>\n\n<p>Further west, Rome was rising to power and cast her eyes eastward. It was General Pompey who overcame Mithridates, the young king of Pontus, and moved to crush the remnants of the kingdom of the Seleucids. The western parts of Syria were formed into a Roman province in 64 <span>BC<\/span>. Pompey finally moved into Palestine, which came under Roman control in 63 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman province of Syria included Cilicia, a strip of territory in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor. The northern boundary reached to the Euphrates River. The boundary then swung south well to the east of Damascus and then turned west about halfway down the Dead Sea and continued west to the Mediterranean Sea. Syria was bound to the west by the Mediterranean up to the Gulf of Alexandretta, where it turned west. The province of Syria and Cilicia (Acts 15:23, 41; Gal 1:21) was governed by an imperial legate (<em>legatis<\/em>) who commanded a strong force of legionary troops. One such governor, Quirinius, governed Syria at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus; this census brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Lk 2:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the following centuries the population of Damascus was Christianized, and Christianity spread throughout the Roman province of Syria, giving rise to the Old Syrian Church, which remains to this day. It has left a remarkable legacy of Christian literature written in Syriac (Aramaic). The old Aramaic language remained, though a modified alphabet was used to write it.<\/p>\n<p>It was the rise of Islam in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> that brought about a considerable weakening of the Syrian church, although it has never been completely destroyed. Scattered communities of Aramaic-speaking people still survive in parts of Syria, and numerous remains of Christian churches have been brought to light as a result of modern archaeological work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LanguageandCulture\">Language and Culture<\/p>\n<p>Aramaic was the language of the Arameans, of which numerous inscriptions have been discovered. The Aramaic script was adapted for use by the Israelites, and the language became the international language for diplomacy and administration all over the Near East. It was the <em>lingua franca<\/em> of the Persian period from Egypt to India and was widely spoken in Palestine in Jesus’ day. The words “<em>talitha cumi<\/em>” (Mk 5:41) and “<em>marana tha<\/em>” (1 Cor 16:22) are Aramaic.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations in many sites have provided a good idea of the Aramean architecture, sculpture, pottery, and other arts. The religion of the Arameans was polytheistic. The people adopted many foreign deities as well. The principal Aramean deity was the ancient west Semitic storm god Hadad. In the days of Ahaz of Judah, the Damascus cult was forced on the people of Jerusalem when an altar based on a Damascus model was placed in the temple (2 Kgs 16:10-13). Arameans exiled to Samaria by the Assyrian ruler Sargon brought foreign Aramean cults with them (17:24-34).<\/p>\n<p>Through the centuries that followed the disappearance of the Aramean states, the Aramaic language has survived. The Christian form of Aramaic, Syriac, has left behind a vast legacy of literature, histories, theologies, commentaries, treatises, and translations, which have been carefully preserved in ancient monastic libraries, particularly in northern Syria, northern Iraq, and southern Turkey.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Aramaic.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","summary_en":"SYRIA, SYRIANS Terms used in the Septuagint and in some English translations to render the names Aram, Arameans. History of the Arameans According to the “table of nations” in Genesis 10:22-23, the Arameans were a Semitic group, descendants of Shem. Another genealogy in Genesis 22:20-21 makes Aram a descendant of Nahor. According to Amos 9:7, the Arameans (Syrians) came from Kir, which is linked with Elam in Isaiah 22:6. The exile of the Arameans to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9; Am 1:5) may suggest they w...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38711,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Worship","title_en":"Worship","content_ro":"<h3>WORSHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Expression of reverence and adoration of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorshipintheOldTestament\">Worship in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The 1,500 years from the days of Abraham to the time of Ezra (c. 1900–450 <span>BC<\/span>) saw many significant changes in the form of worship in ancient Israel. Abraham, the wandering nomad, built altars and offered sacrifices wherever God appeared to him. In Moses’ time the tabernacle served as a portable sanctuary for the Israelite tribes journeying through the wilderness. Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem that lasted more than three centuries until its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. When the Jews returned from exile, they built a new temple, which was later renovated and enlarged by Herod the Great. Though all the temple buildings were destroyed by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the foundations remained. Jews still pray by the Western Wall (called the Wailing Wall).<\/p>\n<p>If the form of worship changed with times and situations, its heart and center did not. God revealed himself to Abraham, promising that his children would inherit the land of Canaan. Abraham demonstrated his faith through prayer and sacrifice. Throughout the biblical period listening to God’s Word, prayer, and sacrifice constituted the essence of worship. The promises to Abraham were constantly recalled as the basis of Israel’s existence as a nation and its right to the land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>From time to time every family visited the temple in Jerusalem. Eight days after a baby boy was born, he was circumcised to mark his membership in Israel. Then, a month or two later, the baby’s mother went to the temple to offer sacrifice (Lv 12; cf. Lk 2:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>Animals were sacrificed in the lambing and calving season. The first lamb or calf born to every ewe or cow was presented in sacrifice (Ex 22:30). Similarly, at the beginning of the harvest season, a basket of the first fruits was offered, and at the end, a tenth of all the harvest, the tithe, was given to the priests as God’s representatives (Nm 18:21-32). Deuteronomy 26:5-15 gives a typical prayer for use on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes a person would decide to offer a sacrifice for more personal reasons. In a crisis, vows could be made and sealed with a sacrifice (Gn 28:18-22; 1 Sm 1:10-11). Then when the prayer was answered, a second sacrifice was customarily offered (Gn 35:3, 14; 1 Sm 1:24-25). Serious sin or serious sickness were also occasions for sacrifice (Lv 4–5, 13–15).<\/p>\n<p>The worshiper brought the animal into the temple court. Standing before the priest, he placed one hand on its head, thereby identifying himself with the animal, and confessed his sin or explained the reason for offering the sacrifice. Then the worshiper killed the animal and cut it up for the priest to burn on the great bronze altar. Some sacrifices (burnt offerings) involved the whole animal being burnt on the altar. In others, some of the meat was set aside for the priests, while the rest was shared by the worshiper and his family. But in every case the worshiper killed the animal from his own flock with his own hands. These sacrifices expressed in a vivid and tangible way the cost of sin and the worshiper’s responsibility. As the worshiper killed the animal, he recalled that sin would have caused his own death, had God not provided an escape through animal sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>Three times a year all adult men went to the temple to celebrate the national festivals (Ex 23:17; Dt 16:16): Passover (held in April), the Feast of Weeks (held in May), and the Feast of Booths (in October). When possible, the whole family accompanied the men. But if they lived a long way from Jerusalem, they would go up for only one of the festivals (1 Sm 1:3; Lk 2:41).<\/p>\n<p>These festivals were tremendous occasions. Hundreds of thousands of people converged on Jerusalem. They would stay with relatives or camp in tents outside the city. The temple courts would be thronged with worshipers. The temple choirs sang psalms appropriate for the festival, while the priests and Levites offered hundreds (at Passover, thousands) of animals in sacrifice. Groups of worshipers carried away with emotion would break forth into dancing. Those of more sober temperament were content to join in the singing or simply pray quietly.<\/p>\n<p>The major festivals were joyful occasions, for they celebrated the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. At Passover each family ate roasted lamb and bitter herbs to reenact the last meal their forefathers ate before leaving Egypt (Ex 12). At the Feast of Booths, they built shelters of branches and lived in them for a week, as a reminder that the Israelites camped in tents during the 40 years of wandering in the wilderness (Lv 23:39-43). These great festivals served as reminders of how God had delivered them from slavery in Egypt and had given them the land of Canaan as he had promised to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Each of these three festivals lasted a week, but there was one day in the year that was totally different, the Day of Atonement, when everyone fasted and mourned for their sins. On this day the high priest confessed the nation’s sins as he pressed his hand on the head of a goat. Then the goat was led away into the wilderness, symbolizing the removal of sin from the people (Lv 16).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after the destruction of the first temple, synagogues developed for public worship. The services were more like modern church worship, consisting exclusively of prayer, Bible reading, and preaching. There were no sacrifices made in the synagogues. When the second temple was destroyed in <span>AD<\/span> 70, synagogues became the only places where Jews could worship in public. Then there were no more sacrifices at all. The NT pictures this as fitting, for Jesus was the true Lamb of God (Jn 1:29); because of his death, there is no need for further animal sacrifice (Heb 10:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorshipintheNewTestament\">Worship in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Jews had become far too dependent on a physical place, the temple, for their worship. When Jesus arrived on the scene, he proclaimed that he himself was the temple of God; in resurrection, he would provide the spiritual dwelling where God the Spirit and people, in spirit, could have spiritual communion (see Mt 12:6; Jn 2:19-22). In other words, worship would no longer be in a place but in a person—through Jesus Christ and his Spirit the worshipers could come directly to God (see Jn 14:6; Heb 10:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>This shift in worship—from physical to spiritual—is the theme of John 4, a chapter that recounts Jesus’ visit to the Samaritans. After Jesus’ encounter with the Samaritan woman, she acknowledged that he must be a prophet, and then she launched into a discussion concerning the religious debate between the Jews and the Samaritans over which place of worship was the right one—Jerusalem or Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans had set up a place for worship on Mt Gerizim in accordance with Deuteronomy 11:26-29 and 27:1-8, while the Jews had followed David and Solomon in making Jerusalem the center of Jewish worship. The Scriptures affirmed Jerusalem as the true center for worship (Dt 12:5; 2 Chr 6:6; 7:12; Ps 78:67-68). But Jesus told her that a new age had come in which the issue no longer concerned a physical site. God the Father would no longer be worshiped in either place. A new age had come in which the true worshipers (Jew, Samaritan, or Gentile) must worship the Father in spirit and in truth.<\/p>\n<p>“In spirit” corresponds to Jerusalem, and “in truth” corresponds to the Samaritans’ unknowledgeable ideas of worship, God, etc. Formerly, God was worshiped in Jerusalem, but now the true Jerusalem would be in a person’s spirit. Indeed, the church is called “the habitation of God in spirit” (Eph 2:22). True worship required a people to contact God, the Spirit, in their spirit, as well as a people who knew the truth. New Testament worship must be in spirit and in truth. Since “God is Spirit,” he must be worshiped in spirit. Human beings possess a human spirit, the nature of which corresponds to God’s nature, which is spirit. Therefore, people can have fellowship with God and worship God in the same sphere that God exists in.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, John 4 anticipates Revelation 21 and 22, where God provides the rivers of the water of life to all the believers and where the Lamb and God are the temple in the New Jerusalem. The believers receive life from God and they worship in God. There is a profound, even mystical connection between drinking of the Spirit and worshiping God in the Spirit (see 1 Cor 12:13). This is also described in Ezekiel 47, which pictures the river flowing from God’s temple as a symbol of God’s never-ending supply. In John 4, Jesus provides the living waters to all who receive the gift of God, and he directs people to a new temple, a spiritual one, where God is worshiped in spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WORSHIP<\/h3>\n<p>Expression of reverence and adoration of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorshipintheOldTestament\">Worship in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The 1,500 years from the days of Abraham to the time of Ezra (c. 1900–450 <span>BC<\/span>) saw many significant changes in the form of worship in ancient Israel. Abraham, the wandering nomad, built altars and offered sacrifices wherever God appeared to him. In Moses’ time the tabernacle served as a portable sanctuary for the Israelite tribes journeying through the wilderness. Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem that lasted more than three centuries until its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. When the Jews returned from exile, they built a new temple, which was later renovated and enlarged by Herod the Great. Though all the temple buildings were destroyed by the Romans in <span>AD<\/span> 70, the foundations remained. Jews still pray by the Western Wall (called the Wailing Wall).<\/p>\n<p>If the form of worship changed with times and situations, its heart and center did not. God revealed himself to Abraham, promising that his children would inherit the land of Canaan. Abraham demonstrated his faith through prayer and sacrifice. Throughout the biblical period listening to God’s Word, prayer, and sacrifice constituted the essence of worship. The promises to Abraham were constantly recalled as the basis of Israel’s existence as a nation and its right to the land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>From time to time every family visited the temple in Jerusalem. Eight days after a baby boy was born, he was circumcised to mark his membership in Israel. Then, a month or two later, the baby’s mother went to the temple to offer sacrifice (Lv 12; cf. Lk 2:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>Animals were sacrificed in the lambing and calving season. The first lamb or calf born to every ewe or cow was presented in sacrifice (Ex 22:30). Similarly, at the beginning of the harvest season, a basket of the first fruits was offered, and at the end, a tenth of all the harvest, the tithe, was given to the priests as God’s representatives (Nm 18:21-32). Deuteronomy 26:5-15 gives a typical prayer for use on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes a person would decide to offer a sacrifice for more personal reasons. In a crisis, vows could be made and sealed with a sacrifice (Gn 28:18-22; 1 Sm 1:10-11). Then when the prayer was answered, a second sacrifice was customarily offered (Gn 35:3, 14; 1 Sm 1:24-25). Serious sin or serious sickness were also occasions for sacrifice (Lv 4–5, 13–15).<\/p>\n<p>The worshiper brought the animal into the temple court. Standing before the priest, he placed one hand on its head, thereby identifying himself with the animal, and confessed his sin or explained the reason for offering the sacrifice. Then the worshiper killed the animal and cut it up for the priest to burn on the great bronze altar. Some sacrifices (burnt offerings) involved the whole animal being burnt on the altar. In others, some of the meat was set aside for the priests, while the rest was shared by the worshiper and his family. But in every case the worshiper killed the animal from his own flock with his own hands. These sacrifices expressed in a vivid and tangible way the cost of sin and the worshiper’s responsibility. As the worshiper killed the animal, he recalled that sin would have caused his own death, had God not provided an escape through animal sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>Three times a year all adult men went to the temple to celebrate the national festivals (Ex 23:17; Dt 16:16): Passover (held in April), the Feast of Weeks (held in May), and the Feast of Booths (in October). When possible, the whole family accompanied the men. But if they lived a long way from Jerusalem, they would go up for only one of the festivals (1 Sm 1:3; Lk 2:41).<\/p>\n<p>These festivals were tremendous occasions. Hundreds of thousands of people converged on Jerusalem. They would stay with relatives or camp in tents outside the city. The temple courts would be thronged with worshipers. The temple choirs sang psalms appropriate for the festival, while the priests and Levites offered hundreds (at Passover, thousands) of animals in sacrifice. Groups of worshipers carried away with emotion would break forth into dancing. Those of more sober temperament were content to join in the singing or simply pray quietly.<\/p>\n<p>The major festivals were joyful occasions, for they celebrated the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. At Passover each family ate roasted lamb and bitter herbs to reenact the last meal their forefathers ate before leaving Egypt (Ex 12). At the Feast of Booths, they built shelters of branches and lived in them for a week, as a reminder that the Israelites camped in tents during the 40 years of wandering in the wilderness (Lv 23:39-43). These great festivals served as reminders of how God had delivered them from slavery in Egypt and had given them the land of Canaan as he had promised to Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>Each of these three festivals lasted a week, but there was one day in the year that was totally different, the Day of Atonement, when everyone fasted and mourned for their sins. On this day the high priest confessed the nation’s sins as he pressed his hand on the head of a goat. Then the goat was led away into the wilderness, symbolizing the removal of sin from the people (Lv 16).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after the destruction of the first temple, synagogues developed for public worship. The services were more like modern church worship, consisting exclusively of prayer, Bible reading, and preaching. There were no sacrifices made in the synagogues. When the second temple was destroyed in <span>AD<\/span> 70, synagogues became the only places where Jews could worship in public. Then there were no more sacrifices at all. The NT pictures this as fitting, for Jesus was the true Lamb of God (Jn 1:29); because of his death, there is no need for further animal sacrifice (Heb 10:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WorshipintheNewTestament\">Worship in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Jews had become far too dependent on a physical place, the temple, for their worship. When Jesus arrived on the scene, he proclaimed that he himself was the temple of God; in resurrection, he would provide the spiritual dwelling where God the Spirit and people, in spirit, could have spiritual communion (see Mt 12:6; Jn 2:19-22). In other words, worship would no longer be in a place but in a person—through Jesus Christ and his Spirit the worshipers could come directly to God (see Jn 14:6; Heb 10:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>This shift in worship—from physical to spiritual—is the theme of John 4, a chapter that recounts Jesus’ visit to the Samaritans. After Jesus’ encounter with the Samaritan woman, she acknowledged that he must be a prophet, and then she launched into a discussion concerning the religious debate between the Jews and the Samaritans over which place of worship was the right one—Jerusalem or Mt Gerizim. The Samaritans had set up a place for worship on Mt Gerizim in accordance with Deuteronomy 11:26-29 and 27:1-8, while the Jews had followed David and Solomon in making Jerusalem the center of Jewish worship. The Scriptures affirmed Jerusalem as the true center for worship (Dt 12:5; 2 Chr 6:6; 7:12; Ps 78:67-68). But Jesus told her that a new age had come in which the issue no longer concerned a physical site. God the Father would no longer be worshiped in either place. A new age had come in which the true worshipers (Jew, Samaritan, or Gentile) must worship the Father in spirit and in truth.<\/p>\n<p>“In spirit” corresponds to Jerusalem, and “in truth” corresponds to the Samaritans’ unknowledgeable ideas of worship, God, etc. Formerly, God was worshiped in Jerusalem, but now the true Jerusalem would be in a person’s spirit. Indeed, the church is called “the habitation of God in spirit” (Eph 2:22). True worship required a people to contact God, the Spirit, in their spirit, as well as a people who knew the truth. New Testament worship must be in spirit and in truth. Since “God is Spirit,” he must be worshiped in spirit. Human beings possess a human spirit, the nature of which corresponds to God’s nature, which is spirit. Therefore, people can have fellowship with God and worship God in the same sphere that God exists in.<\/p>\n<p>In a sense, John 4 anticipates Revelation 21 and 22, where God provides the rivers of the water of life to all the believers and where the Lamb and God are the temple in the New Jerusalem. The believers receive life from God and they worship in God. There is a profound, even mystical connection between drinking of the Spirit and worshiping God in the Spirit (see 1 Cor 12:13). This is also described in Ezekiel 47, which pictures the river flowing from God’s temple as a symbol of God’s never-ending supply. In John 4, Jesus provides the living waters to all who receive the gift of God, and he directs people to a new temple, a spiritual one, where God is worshiped in spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WORSHIP Expression of reverence and adoration of God. Worship in the Old Testament The 1,500 years from the days of Abraham to the time of Ezra (c. 1900–450 BC) saw many significant changes in the form of worship in ancient Israel. Abraham, the wandering nomad, built altars and offered sacrifices wherever God appeared to him. In Moses’ time the tabernacle served as a portable sanctuary for the Israelite tribes journeying through the wilderness. Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem that lasted ...","summary_en":"WORSHIP Expression of reverence and adoration of God. Worship in the Old Testament The 1,500 years from the days of Abraham to the time of Ezra (c. 1900–450 BC) saw many significant changes in the form of worship in ancient Israel. Abraham, the wandering nomad, built altars and offered sacrifices wherever God appeared to him. In Moses’ time the tabernacle served as a portable sanctuary for the Israelite tribes journeying through the wilderness. Solomon built a temple in Jerusalem that lasted ...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:5","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","summary_en":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72782,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:5","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","summary_en":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100408,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:5","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","summary_en":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128034,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:5","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:5<\/strong> <em>Jacob<\/em><em>’<\/em>s mother (Rebekah) was an <em>Aramean<\/em> (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (<em>wandering<\/em>). • <em>few in number:<\/em> Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","summary_en":"26:5 Jacob’s mother (Rebekah) was an Aramean (Gen 24:10; 25:20, 26), and Jacob also lived in Aram for many years (Gen 31:41-42). His lifestyle was seminomadic (wandering). • few in number: Jacob and his family totaled only seventy when they went to Egypt (see Gen 46:27; Exod 1:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":31002,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Power","title_en":"Power","content_ro":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POWER<\/h3>\n<p>Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheUnlimitedPowerofGod\">The Unlimited Power of God<\/p>\n<p>God is almighty and all other power is derived from him and subject to him. Much that the Bible says is summed up in the words of 1 Chronicles 29:11-12 addressed to God in praise: “Thine, O <span>Lord<\/span>, is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty; for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O <span>Lord<\/span>. . . . thou rulest over all. In thy hand are power and might; and in thy hand it is to make great and to give strength to all” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Using human terms, the OT often speaks of God’s “mighty hand” and his “outstretched arm,” both being used for the power of God in action (Ex 6:6; 7:4; Ps 44:2-3). His power is seen in creation (Ps 65:6; Is 40:26; Jer 10:12; 27:5), in his rule over the world (2 Chr 20:6), in his acts of salvation and judgment (Ex 15:6; Dt 26:8), and in all that he does for his people (Ps 111:6). The NT, as well as the OT, speaks of the mighty power of God. Ephesians 1:19 speaks of the immeasurable greatness of his power, and the words of Jesus in Matthew 26:64 show that the word could be substituted for the very name of God when he said that the Son of Man would be seen “seated at the right hand of Power.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLimitedPowerGodGivestoHisCreatures\">The Limited Power God Gives to His Creatures<\/p>\n<p>Animals have power, as is particularly evident in the wild ox, the horse, and the lion (Jb 39:11, 19; Prv 30:30). There is power in wind and storm, thunder and lightning. Power is given to humans: physical strength (Jgs 16:5-6), power to fight (6:12), and the power to do good and the power to do harm (Gn 31:29; Prv 3:27; Mi 2:1). Rulers have God-given power and authority (Rom 13:1). The Bible also speaks of the power of angels (2 Pt 2:11) and of spiritual beings known as “principalities and powers.” Certain powers are given to Satan (see Jb 1:6-12; 2:1-6). Sin, evil, and death are allowed to have some power over men (Hos 13:14; Lk 22:53; Rom 3:9). All of these, however, have only limited power, and God is able to give his people strength to conquer all these powers. He can save them from the power of animals (Dn 6:27; Lk 10:19) and from the power of other people over them. To Pilate Jesus said, “You would have no power over me at all unless it were given to you from above” (Jn 19:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). He is able to deliver people from the power of sin and death, from Satan, and from all the spiritual forces of evil (2 Cor 10:4; Eph 6:10-18). The “ruler of this world” could ultimately have no power over Christ (Jn 14:30) and so cannot have power over those who rely on him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodSeeninJesusChrist\">The Power of God Seen in Jesus Christ<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels and the book of Acts bear frequent witness to the power of Christ. Power was shown in his miracles (Mt 11:20; Acts 2:22), in his works of healing and exorcism (Lk 4:36; 5:17; 6:19; Acts 10:38). Power is shown supremely in his resurrection. Jesus speaks of his power to give up his life and power to take it again (Jn 10:18), but the NT speaks most frequently of the power of God the Father shown in the raising of his Son from the dead (Rom 1:4; Eph 1:19-20). In the end he will be seen coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory (Mt 24:30). With regard to his human life on earth, however, it may be noted in the light of what follows that he lived and did his mighty works in the power of the Holy Spirit (Lk 4:14; Acts 10:38).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePowerofGodintheLivesofHisPeople\">The Power of God in the Lives of His People<\/p>\n<p>In the OT it is often said that the weak are made strong by the power of God. He empowers those who are weak (Is 40:29) so that they may increase from strength to strength (Ps 84:7; see also Pss 68:35; 138:3). We read in particular of his power being given to prophets (Mi 3:8) and kings (1 Sm 2:10; Ps 21:1), and it is said that in an outstanding way power will be given to the Messiah (Is 9:6; 11:2; Mi 5:4). But to all God’s people power is offered that they may live for him and serve him (Is 49:5). When we turn to the NT, we read of the gospel itself as being the power of God for salvation—to everyone who has faith (Rom 1:16). “To all who received him [Jesus Christ], who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God” (Jn 1:12, <span>rsv<\/span>). In that life as children of God, power is received from the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:8), inner strength to live in his service (Eph 3:16), power to be his witnesses (Lk 24:49; Acts 1:8), power to endure suffering (2 Tm 1:8), power for ministry (Eph 3:7), power in the face of weakness (2 Cor 12:9), power through prayer (Jas 5:16), and power to be kept from evil (1 Pt 1:5). Those who do great things in the service of Christ do not do them in their own strength (Acts 3:12); he sent out his disciples confident only in the assurance that all things are under his authority and that they would have the power of his unfailing presence with them (Mt 28:18-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Principalities and Powers.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","summary_en":"POWER Ability to do things, by virtue of strength, skill, resources, or authorization. In the Hebrew of the OT and the Greek of the NT, there are several different words used for power. What the Bible says about power may be subsumed under four headings: (1) the unlimited power of God; (2) the limited power God gives to his creatures; (3) the power of God seen in Jesus Christ; and (4) the power of God (by the Holy Spirit) in the lives of his people. The Unlimited Power of God God is almighty ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":45157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","summary_en":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72783,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","summary_en":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100409,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","summary_en":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128035,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:11<\/strong> In Israelite society, <em>foreigners<\/em> (literally <em>sojourners<\/em>) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","summary_en":"26:11 In Israelite society, foreigners (literally sojourners) were resident aliens; see also study note on 10:18.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":28629,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Orphan","title_en":"Orphan","content_ro":"<h3>ORPHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legislation made special provision for them by protecting their rights of inheritance (Nm 27:7-11; Dt 24:17; Prv 23:10), ensuring their freedom to glean the fields and vineyards (Dt 24:19-21), allowing their participation in the great annual feasts (16:11, 14), and allotting them a portion of the tithe crops collected every three years (14:29; 26:12). Strong condemnation awaits those who oppress them (Dt 24:17; 27:19; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>While the orphans of Israel were sometimes aided by friends and relatives (Jb 29:12; 31:17), there was general failure to meet the requirements of the law, as is witnessed by the accusations of the inspired writers (Jb 6:27; 22:9; 24:3, 9; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; 10:2; Jer 5:28; Ez 22:7). Consequently, the prophets never tire of pleading the orphan’s cause (Jer 7:6; 22:3; Zec 7:10).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used only twice in the NT—once in a general sense to describe those who are “desolate” or “comfortless” (Jn 14:18), and once in the specific sense to describe the “fatherless” (Jas 1:27). In the spirit of an OT prophet, James declares that true religion involves the care of orphans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ORPHAN<\/h3>\n<p>Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legislation made special provision for them by protecting their rights of inheritance (Nm 27:7-11; Dt 24:17; Prv 23:10), ensuring their freedom to glean the fields and vineyards (Dt 24:19-21), allowing their participation in the great annual feasts (16:11, 14), and allotting them a portion of the tithe crops collected every three years (14:29; 26:12). Strong condemnation awaits those who oppress them (Dt 24:17; 27:19; Mal 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>While the orphans of Israel were sometimes aided by friends and relatives (Jb 29:12; 31:17), there was general failure to meet the requirements of the law, as is witnessed by the accusations of the inspired writers (Jb 6:27; 22:9; 24:3, 9; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; 10:2; Jer 5:28; Ez 22:7). Consequently, the prophets never tire of pleading the orphan’s cause (Jer 7:6; 22:3; Zec 7:10).<\/p>\n<p>The word is used only twice in the NT—once in a general sense to describe those who are “desolate” or “comfortless” (Jn 14:18), and once in the specific sense to describe the “fatherless” (Jas 1:27). In the spirit of an OT prophet, James declares that true religion involves the care of orphans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ORPHAN Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3). Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legi...","summary_en":"ORPHAN Word coming from a Hebrew root meaning “to be alone” or “bereaved,” often rendered as “fatherless.” The idea describes any person who is without legal standing in the covenant community of Israel, who is unprotected or needy, and who is especially exposed to oppression. It also speaks of one who is bereft of one or both earthly parents (cf. Lam 5:3). Since God has a special concern for the fatherless (Ex 22:22-24; Dt 10:18; Pss 10:14, 18; 27:10; 68:5; 146:9; Is 1:17; Hos 14:3), OT legi...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37420,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tithing Tithe","title_en":"Tithing Tithe","content_ro":"<h3>TITHE, TITHING<\/h3>\n<p>Words deriving from Old English for “tenth” and representing a charge upon produce or labor levied for the maintenance of religious activities. The custom is very ancient (Abraham paid a tithe of the spoils of war to Melchizedek; see Gn 14:20) and widely practiced, being known in Athens, Arabia, Rome, Carthage, Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and China.<\/p>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy (Dt 12:2-7, 17-19; 14:22-29), the centralization of worship meant that the tithe was taken annually at the sanctuary and shared by priests and Levites. Corn, wine, oil, and flocks were tithed. Every third year, the Levites, foreigners, orphans, and widows were given the whole tithe in charity (Dt 26:12). According to Numbers 18:21-32, every tithe in Israel was given to the Levites in return for their priestly service.<\/p>\n<p> The prophet Malachi (Mal 3:8-10), who scathingly declared the withholding of tithes to be “robbing God,” promised full barns and vats, opened windows of heaven, outpoured blessing and deliverance from locusts, in return for faithful tithing. In the early tithe feasts, thanksgiving for God’s gifts would seem appropriate (cf. Gn 28:22), though not emphasized. Maintenance of the service of God remained the chief purpose of tithing, along with a wide charity.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from recalling Melchizedek’s tithe (Heb 7), tithing is mentioned in the NT critically. According to Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42, Jesus spoke of those who meticulously paid tithes on three small garden herbs while neglecting three “weightier matters of the law,” namely, justice, mercy, and faith. For him, this was an example of the lack of moral proportion, the lack of a right sense of priorities, that marked Pharisaism. The explicit rule, precisely observed, is so much easier and self-satisfying than the moral sensitivity that should govern all relations with others and with God. According to Luke 18:12, the Pharisee, congratulating himself in prayer for his superior virtues, mentions his tithing of all income among his claims to divine favor. Christ sternly devalued the pride-filled performance, compared with that of the humble penitent.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TITHE, TITHING<\/h3>\n<p>Words deriving from Old English for “tenth” and representing a charge upon produce or labor levied for the maintenance of religious activities. The custom is very ancient (Abraham paid a tithe of the spoils of war to Melchizedek; see Gn 14:20) and widely practiced, being known in Athens, Arabia, Rome, Carthage, Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and China.<\/p>\n<p>According to Deuteronomy (Dt 12:2-7, 17-19; 14:22-29), the centralization of worship meant that the tithe was taken annually at the sanctuary and shared by priests and Levites. Corn, wine, oil, and flocks were tithed. Every third year, the Levites, foreigners, orphans, and widows were given the whole tithe in charity (Dt 26:12). According to Numbers 18:21-32, every tithe in Israel was given to the Levites in return for their priestly service.<\/p>\n<p> The prophet Malachi (Mal 3:8-10), who scathingly declared the withholding of tithes to be “robbing God,” promised full barns and vats, opened windows of heaven, outpoured blessing and deliverance from locusts, in return for faithful tithing. In the early tithe feasts, thanksgiving for God’s gifts would seem appropriate (cf. Gn 28:22), though not emphasized. Maintenance of the service of God remained the chief purpose of tithing, along with a wide charity.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from recalling Melchizedek’s tithe (Heb 7), tithing is mentioned in the NT critically. According to Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42, Jesus spoke of those who meticulously paid tithes on three small garden herbs while neglecting three “weightier matters of the law,” namely, justice, mercy, and faith. For him, this was an example of the lack of moral proportion, the lack of a right sense of priorities, that marked Pharisaism. The explicit rule, precisely observed, is so much easier and self-satisfying than the moral sensitivity that should govern all relations with others and with God. According to Luke 18:12, the Pharisee, congratulating himself in prayer for his superior virtues, mentions his tithing of all income among his claims to divine favor. Christ sternly devalued the pride-filled performance, compared with that of the humble penitent.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TITHE, TITHING Words deriving from Old English for “tenth” and representing a charge upon produce or labor levied for the maintenance of religious activities. The custom is very ancient (Abraham paid a tithe of the spoils of war to Melchizedek; see Gn 14:20) and widely practiced, being known in Athens, Arabia, Rome, Carthage, Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and China. According to Deuteronomy (Dt 12:2-7, 17-19; 14:22-29), the centralization of worship meant that the tithe was taken annually at the san...","summary_en":"TITHE, TITHING Words deriving from Old English for “tenth” and representing a charge upon produce or labor levied for the maintenance of religious activities. The custom is very ancient (Abraham paid a tithe of the spoils of war to Melchizedek; see Gn 14:20) and widely practiced, being known in Athens, Arabia, Rome, Carthage, Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and China. According to Deuteronomy (Dt 12:2-7, 17-19; 14:22-29), the centralization of worship meant that the tithe was taken annually at the san...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38355,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Widow","title_en":"Widow","content_ro":"<h3>WIDOW<\/h3>\n<p>A woman whose husband has died. In the Scriptures, widows are often listed with the fatherless and orphans (Dt 14:29; 16:11; 24:19-20; 26:12; Ps 94:6). Laws were passed to make special provision for this group and to protect them against the unscrupulous. The primary law had to do with levirate marriage—i.e., the closest kin would marry the widow (if she was without a son) to continue the family line (see discussion under Marriage).<\/p>\n<p>The plight of the widow was recognized in the number of laws designed for her protection and even survival. God was her legal protector (Ps 68:5) and saw that she was provided with the essentials of food and clothing (Dt 10:18). Those who denied her justice were cursed by God (27:19). At harvesttime the widow might glean the grain in the fields, as well as some grapes and olives (Dt 24:19; Ru 2:2, 7, 15-19), and she was also eligible for some assistance from the third-year tithe. Nevertheless, the poverty of widows and the cruel treatment extended to them was so widespread that frequent reference is made to it (Jb 24:21; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; Mal 3:5). A special law provided that the widow’s garment could not be used as security for a loan (Dt 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church there was a recognized group of widows eligible to receive charity. They were generally those over 60 years of age who had been faithful to their husband, were in poverty, had no relatives to support them, and had lived blameless lives filled with Christian good works (1 Tm 5:9-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations; Marriage.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WIDOW<\/h3>\n<p>A woman whose husband has died. In the Scriptures, widows are often listed with the fatherless and orphans (Dt 14:29; 16:11; 24:19-20; 26:12; Ps 94:6). Laws were passed to make special provision for this group and to protect them against the unscrupulous. The primary law had to do with levirate marriage—i.e., the closest kin would marry the widow (if she was without a son) to continue the family line (see discussion under Marriage).<\/p>\n<p>The plight of the widow was recognized in the number of laws designed for her protection and even survival. God was her legal protector (Ps 68:5) and saw that she was provided with the essentials of food and clothing (Dt 10:18). Those who denied her justice were cursed by God (27:19). At harvesttime the widow might glean the grain in the fields, as well as some grapes and olives (Dt 24:19; Ru 2:2, 7, 15-19), and she was also eligible for some assistance from the third-year tithe. Nevertheless, the poverty of widows and the cruel treatment extended to them was so widespread that frequent reference is made to it (Jb 24:21; Ps 94:6; Is 1:23; Mal 3:5). A special law provided that the widow’s garment could not be used as security for a loan (Dt 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the early Christian church there was a recognized group of widows eligible to receive charity. They were generally those over 60 years of age who had been faithful to their husband, were in poverty, had no relatives to support them, and had lived blameless lives filled with Christian good works (1 Tm 5:9-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Family Life and Relations; Marriage.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WIDOW A woman whose husband has died. In the Scriptures, widows are often listed with the fatherless and orphans (Dt 14:29; 16:11; 24:19-20; 26:12; Ps 94:6). Laws were passed to make special provision for this group and to protect them against the unscrupulous. The primary law had to do with levirate marriage—i.e., the closest kin would marry the widow (if she was without a son) to continue the family line (see discussion under Marriage). The plight of the widow was recognized in the number o...","summary_en":"WIDOW A woman whose husband has died. In the Scriptures, widows are often listed with the fatherless and orphans (Dt 14:29; 16:11; 24:19-20; 26:12; Ps 94:6). Laws were passed to make special provision for this group and to protect them against the unscrupulous. The primary law had to do with levirate marriage—i.e., the closest kin would marry the widow (if she was without a son) to continue the family line (see discussion under Marriage). The plight of the widow was recognized in the number o...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","summary_en":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72784,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","summary_en":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100410,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","summary_en":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128036,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:12<\/strong> <em>Every third year<\/em> the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","summary_en":"26:12 Every third year the tithe was gathered for the Levites and other dependents; see also study note on 14:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60523,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88149,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115775,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143401,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Concern for the Poor","title_en":"Concern for the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Concern for the Poor<\/h3>\n<p>God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left for the needy (see Lev 23:22). Those who were destitute were not to be victimized. Instead, loans were to be made without interest, or the debtor was to be allowed to work off his debt with dignity as a bondservant (25:35-42). These positive steps ensured that the poor had food to eat.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible first mentions concern for the poor in the radical accommodations of the offering system to those unable to afford more costly offerings. Birds could be substituted for lambs in the whole burnt offering (1:14-17) and the sin offering (5:7-10), and there were other such concessions in the cleansing rituals (14:21-22). Perhaps the most striking is in the substitution of flour for the sin offering (5:11-13). The life-for-a-life symbolism is forfeited for economic reasons, showing clearly God’s desire that the poor who cannot afford a lamb should nonetheless be able to experience forgiveness of sins.<\/p>\n<p>This theme is continued in the prophets’ concern for the poor and helpless and their pleas for social justice and compassion (e.g., Isa 1:17; Amos 2:6). The prophets had some strong words for those responsible for oppressing the needy (see e.g., 4:1-3; 8:4-8). The worship practices of the people—no matter how lavish—were not accepted by God if, at the same time, those worshiping were guilty of injustice and oppression (see Isa 1:15-20; Mic 6:6-8). This notion that proper attitudes and actions toward God and others are more important than the practice of worship rituals is reflected in the story in the Gospels of the poor widow’s offering. Her offering receives praise from Jesus, not because of its monetary value, but because of the devotion it represented (Mark 12:41-44). Religious practices could even inhibit helping those in need (see Mark 7:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and the early church exhibited concern for the poor. Jesus indicated that a major component of his mission was to bring hope to the poor and release for the oppressed (Luke 4:16-21). He warned strongly against neglecting the poor (Luke 16:19-31) and indicated that a willingness to provide for the poor was necessary for those desiring to be his followers (see Luke 18:18-23). Reflecting the teaching of Christ, the early church sought to ensure that the needy among them were well cared for (Acts 2:44-45; Acts 4:32-37; 1 Tim 5:3-16). As in the prophets, the mistreatment of the marginalized made a farce of religious practice (1 Cor 11:17-29; Jas 1:27–2:17).<\/p>\n<p>God’s concern for the poor is thus a theme that runs throughout Scripture, and believers must take up a similar perspective toward those in need.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 22:22-27; 23:6-11; Lev 5:7, 11; 14:21-22; 19:9-10; 23:22; Deut 10:17-19; 15:4-11; 16:9-12; 24:6-22; 26:12-13; 27:17-19; 1 Sam 2:8; Ps 10:13-18; 35:10; 68:5; Prov 14:31; Isa 1:15-17; Amos 2:6; 4:1; 8:4-7; Mic 6:6-8, 12; Mark 12:41-44; Luke 6:20; 14:12-14; Jas 2:1-17<\/p>","summary_ro":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","summary_en":"Concern for the Poor God commanded Israel to show concern for its people’s well-being. Israel’s covenant with God, together with its self-concept as an extended family, exerted a leveling effect that resisted pretensions to privilege. A family should provide for members who are facing difficulty. These members of the Israelite people included widows and orphans (Exod 22:22), the poor, and foreigners (Lev 19:10). The edges of the fields and the gleanings of field and vineyard were to be left f...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":45159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","summary_en":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72785,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","summary_en":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100411,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","summary_en":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128037,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:13<\/strong> <em>I have taken<\/em> (literally <em>burned<\/em>) <em>the sacred gift:<\/em> This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","summary_en":"26:13 I have taken (literally burned) the sacred gift: This phrase means that the donor had given his own property to the Levites and to others in need.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":45160,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","summary_en":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72786,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","summary_en":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100412,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","summary_en":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128038,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:14<\/strong> <em>offered any of it to the dead:<\/em> These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","summary_en":"26:14 offered any of it to the dead: These pagan rituals were intended to sustain the dead through food offerings. Such food would be unacceptable as a part of the tithe given to the Levites.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":45161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","summary_en":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","summary_en":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","summary_en":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","summary_en":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100413,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","summary_en":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100414,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","summary_en":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128039,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16-19<\/strong> Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","summary_en":"26:16-19 Having laid out the great covenant principles (chs 5–11) and clarified their application (chs 12–26), Moses urged the people to obey the covenant with all their hearts. The Lord had called them into a special relationship with himself, a privilege that required obedience to the covenant prescriptions. The result of this submission was holiness, a state that reflected God’s character and that would flow naturally from unbroken fellowship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128040,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 26:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 26:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>26:16<\/strong> <em>wholeheartedly<\/em> (literally <em>with all your heart and with all your soul<\/em>): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the <em>Shema,<\/em> the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","summary_en":"26:16 wholeheartedly (literally with all your heart and with all your soul): This Hebrew phrase is a clear reference to the Shema, the foundational statement of Israel’s faith and covenant commitment (see 6:4-5 and study notes). There could be no halfhearted compliance with God’s high and holy expectations; it must be all or nothing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":22682,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Biblical Concept of Law","title_en":"Biblical Concept of Law","content_ro":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAW, Biblical Concept of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>• Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>• Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalContext\">Historical Context<\/p>\n<p>When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). However, in his exalted status as ruler over God’s creation on earth, man had to prove his loyalty to the Lord. For this purpose God set up a simple test: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Man was prohibited from eating the fruit of that tree (2:17). His disobedience marked him as unfit for fellowship with the great King. He was rebellious and by nature full of treachery, as the subsequent accounts of Cain (4:1-16), the generation of the Flood (6:1-13), Ham and Canaan (9:18-26; 10:6-20), and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) demonstrate.<\/p>\n<p>Yet in the midst of all this the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless him, his seed, and the families of the earth that would join in a common expression of faith (Gn 12:2-3; 17:4-7). Abraham responded to God in faith (15:6), willingly observed the ritual of circumcision as a sign of the covenant (17:10; cf. 21:4), and walked before God with integrity of heart (17:1). Abraham subsequently learned that God had sovereignly and graciously chosen him with the purpose that Abraham’s family might distinguish itself from the nations “by doing righteousness and justice” (18:19). The Lord was pleased with his servant Abraham, who, though he had not received detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, so that he willingly did what God commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The father of faith was the father of the faithful; the Lord testified that Abraham “obeyed me and kept my requirements, my commands, my decrees and my laws” (Gn 26:5, <span>niv<\/span>). His faith resulted in the fruits of righteousness (Jas 2:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>However, Israel, blessed by the Lord in the increase of descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond to him in faith. They murmured and complained at Mt Sinai, at Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They proved themselves to be a rebellious and stiff-necked people (Ex 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Dt 9:6, 13). Though they had shown their character, the Lord was faithful to Abraham by covenanting himself to them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, his holy nation (Ex 19:5-6; Dt 26:18-19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the testimony (Ex 32:15-16). Even after Moses had broken them in anger because of the people’s idolatrous worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by writing again the words of the covenant (34:28). On one hand, the context in which the law was given reflects God’s grace and forbearance with Israel’s sins (vv 6-7) and his determination to use Israel in the unfolding of his plan of redemption for the world. On the other hand, the context reflects Israel’s immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the OT has positive and negative purposes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LawintheOldTestament\">Law in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT has many words for God’s law. The most general word is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Torah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which signifies instruction of any kind: religious and secular, written and oral, divine and human. Law in Israel was God’s law, mediated through Moses (Ex 20:19; Dt 5:23-27). Because Israel rejected the direct revelation of God’s oracles, the law was mediated through Moses the servant of God (Jn 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Synonyms for law are, in various translations, word (cf. Ex 24:3; 34:27), judgment (cf. Ex 24:3), decree (cf. Nm 30:16; Dt 4:1), ordinance (cf. Nm 9:12, 14; Dt 6:2), command(ment) (cf. Dt 6:1, 25), statutes (Lv 3:17; 10:11), precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; cf. 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173), stipulations, requirements, testimonies (cf. Dt 4:45; 6:20; 1 Kgs 2:3), precept (a Hebrew term not in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:15), or simply the “way(s)” (cf. 1 Kgs 2:3; Pss 18:21; 25:9; 37:34).<\/p>\n<p>These words form a semantic field, and it is far from easy to distinguish clearly among the various forms of laws. Generally “the words” pertain to the duties of man toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1; 34:27). The “judgments” contain civil regulations and duties to one’s fellows and to the social environment (21:1–23:9); these are often in the form of “if . . . then. . . .” In Leviticus and in cultic formulations the word “ordinances” has the technical sense of cultic regulations—the ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially in a series of synonyms for law, it signifies any expectation or regulation. The “commandments” are those regulations given by a higher authority. Though the OT has many words for law, the connotation of one word is often indistinguishable from that of other words, especially in series such as “the decrees and laws” (Dt 4:1, 5; 5:1), “the commands, decrees and laws” (6:1), “walk in his ways, and keep his decrees and commands, his laws and requirements, as written in the Law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The motivation for keeping the divine law lies in the acts and presence of the Lord. The prologue to the Decalogue reminds us of God’s mighty acts: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Ex 20:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). In the historic acts of Israel’s redemption, revelation at Mt Sinai, and consecration of Israel to be his people, he involved himself with Israel as a “father.” He adopted Israel to sonship and consecrated them; that is, he declared them holy (Ex 19:6; 31:13; Lv 20:8; 22:32; cf. Rom 9:4). Sometimes the two concepts of redemption and consecration are placed together, but whether they are or not, they are inseparable: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, who makes you holy” (Lv 22:32b, <span>niv<\/span>). The ground of obedience can be stated simply by an appeal to God’s name: “I am Yahweh” (cf. Lv 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30-31, 34, 36-37). The requisite of practical holiness is also based on the experience of God’s presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” dwelt in the midst of his people (Ex 25:8; 29:45; Nm 5:3; 35:34).<\/p>\n<p>How could rebellious Israel grasp what God required, if it were not by precise moral, social, civil, and cultic regulations? The Lord had observed that they did not have “the heart” to serve him as a covenant-loyal people (Dt 5:29). By Israel’s very nature, it could not develop an adequate moral and cultic system to please God. Because of the people’s hardness of heart, God had to reveal (i.e., “spell out”) his will.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IsraeliteLawandtheAncientNearEast\">Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes (Eshnunna, Hammurabi) show similarities with the biblical codes. The similarities go beyond similarity of cases and include legal formulations (casuistic law). Israelite law is distinct in that it is divine law. Moses is the mediator and not the promulgator of the law, as was the practice of a king who, like Hammurabi, put into force a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (cf. Dt 4:5-8). The laws in the ancient Near East dealt with the ordering of society. But Israel’s laws were given to regulate every aspect of life: personal, familial, social, and cultic. The laws were to teach Israel to distinguish between holy and profane, between clean and unclean, and between just and unjust.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLaws\">Old Testament Laws<\/p>\n<p>The legal corpus of the OT is not given in one book or in one section. Moreover, the laws reflect the development from the desert context (Exodus) to the context of the land (Deuteronomy). The OT legal material is complex, full of variations and duplications. It is found in Exodus (chs 20–24; 25–31), Leviticus, Numbers (chs 3–6; 8–10; 15; 18; 19; 28–30), and Deuteronomy (chs 5–26).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ten Commandments<\/h5>\n<p>The commandments are simply designated as “the words” of God (Ex 20:1). They appear in Exodus 20:1-17 and in Deuteronomy 5:6-21, but minor variations and individual commandments occur in other contexts (e.g., Ex 34:14, 17, 21; Lv 19:1-8; Dt 27:15-16). As a part of the covenant, the commandments were first addressed to Israel; they now form the basis of morality in Christianity. The abiding relevance of the moral law is clear from the NT. Our Lord established his authority as interpreter of all the commandments (Mt 5:17-48; 12:1-14; 23:23-24). He summarized the law in terms of love for God and man (cf. Mt 22:37-40; Mk 12:28-34; Lk 10:27; cf. Rom 13:8-9; Gal 5:14). Since he is also the Lord of the Sabbath, the Sabbath cannot be divorced from the other commandments (Mt 12:8). The apostle Paul also upheld the law, as his “ethics of the Spirit” reflects an internalization of the law of God in the hearts of believers (cf. Rom 8:1-17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Cor 2:6-16; 5:1-8; 10:23–11:1; Gal 5:13–6:10; Eph 4:17–6:9; Phil 2:1-18; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1-12; 5:12-24; 2 Thes 3:6-15; 1 Tm 6:3-10; Ti 3:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The commandments were written on both sides of the two tablets by the Lord (Ex 32:15-16). It is unclear whether the tablets were duplicate copies, how the commandments were divided, and how the commandments were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (40:20).<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Covenant (Ex 20:23–23:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The purpose of the covenant code was to exemplify and to set into motion the legal machinery by which Israel as a nation could reflect God’s concern for justice, love, peace, and the value of life. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mainly of the casuistic type. They regulate life in an agricultural society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and fields of grain. The regulations pertain to relations with women (including widows), aliens, orphans; to legal concerns (liability, damages, ownership); as well as to religious obligations (altar, Sabbath). Often the law requires restitution, but restitution is not the rule when human life is involved (Ex 21:12-29; 22:2-3), especially when it involves one’s family (21:15-17, 22-25). The penal code attached to the case laws makes clear the value of human life, which is protected by the <em>lex talionis<\/em> (“law of retaliation”). The <em>lex talionis<\/em> does not point to a lack of forgiveness under the OT but rather was intended to be a legal principle giving coherence and justice to a society. The Book of the Covenant explicates by means of principles and cases how Israel must live together as a nation embracing the law of God and applying it <em>justly<\/em> (without discrimination or twisting of rights), <em>lovingly<\/em> (with a concern for the parties involved), and <em>peaceably.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>The Priestly Law<\/h5>\n<p>God’s concern for holiness and purity comes to expression in the priestly laws (Ex 25–31; 35–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 4–10). The regulations pertain to the construction of the tabernacle, the consecration and ordination of priests, the offerings and sacrifices, rules of purity, the holy days, and vows.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle was set in the middle of Israel’s camp in the wilderness. It symbolized the presence of God with his people. The priests and Levites were encamped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God’s holiness. All the tribes were situated around the tabernacle, and though the members of the tribes did not have access to all parts of the tabernacle, they had to be ritually clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ritually defiled (Lv 13:46; Nm 5:1-3) or had sinned grievously was put outside the camp (Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36). This regulation even included objects that had become defiled (Lv 8:17; 9:11).<\/p>\n<p>By means of prescribed offerings and sacrifices (Lv 1–7; 16; Nm 15:1-31; 28), God assured Israel, individually and corporately, of forgiveness when it had unwittingly sinned. The offerings and sacrifices concretely embodied the purpose of the offerer, whether forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.<\/p>\n<p>The priests and Levites taught the law of God (Dt 31:9-13), applied its regulations, and served in courts (17:8-13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Holiness Code (Lv 17–26)<\/h5>\n<p>The holiness code forms a significant part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses addressed all of Israel (cf. Lv 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).<\/p>\n<p>The laws are in the form of prohibitions and direct commands. They pertain to the place of sacrifice and the prohibition of eating meat with blood in it (ch 17); the prohibition of sexual relations with specified family members (ch 18); and regulations promoting godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (ch 19). The penal code applies penalties to those who sin against the regulations (ch 20; 24:10-23). Chapters 21–24 apply the cultic regulations to the priests and to all Israelites. The institutions of the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee regulate the remission of debts, freedom of people, and restitution of land (ch 25).<\/p>\n<p>The holiness code spells out the qualities required of a holy people: devotion to God (offerings, sacrifices, priests) and love for man (Lv 19:18b) demonstrated in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and a concern for the family. Many of the laws reflect the spirit of the Decalogue (ch 19).<\/p>\n<p>Both promises and curses are attached to the holiness code (ch 26). The curses predict exile as a consequence of breaking the laws. But always underlying the laws and penalties is the grace of the Lord, who promises freely to forgive the people’s sins and to renew the broken covenant (26:44-45).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws of Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The Deuteronomic laws are explications and new applications of the Book of the Covenant in view of Israel’s new historical situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses outlined to them the law of God (Dt 1:5). The impersonal element of the Book of the Covenant is here transformed by personal appeal. Moses strongly appeals to Israel to be loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and the covenantal stipulations. The Deuteronomic laws envision the people in the land of promise, with a central sanctuary (12:5, 11-18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5-7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11) and with a king (17:14-20). The blessings and the curses motivate covenant loyalty (ch 28). However, Israel is also here assured that even if it breaks God’s law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposesoftheLaw\">Purposes of the Law<\/p>\n<p>The law revealed at Mt Sinai was intended to lead Israel closer to God. Rebellious though they were, God used the law as his righteous instrument to teach, in a very specific way, what sin is (cf. Rom 5:20; 7:7-8) and how they should walk on a path that kept them undefiled by sin and holy to the Lord. The law was the teacher and the keeper of Israel (Gal 3:24). The detailed explications of the laws in all areas of life (work, society, family, cult, and nation) had an important place in God’s dealings with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land, with a theocratic government, and was in need of a legislative corpus. Moreover, Israel’s condition at Mt Sinai was such that it could not receive direct revelation. The revelation had to be mediated through Moses. It had to be set forth in detail because Israel had no intuitive grasp of what the revelation of God’s holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and forebearance required of them. They had adopted Egyptian ways and had to learn the divine will by revelation. However, Moses and the prophets emphasize that the purpose of the law is not strict adherence to the law for its own sake (legalism) or for a reward (Pharisaism). Keeping the law is an act of devotion to God, for the sake of God. Our Lord confirmed the purpose of the law: to establish a dynamic way of life in which one continually seeks God’s kingdom and his righteousness (Mt 6:33).<\/p>\n<p>The law of God is his means of sanctification. He consecrated Israel by an act of grace, and he required Israel to remain holy. Jesus confirmed those uses of the law whereby one may know his sinfulness and by which he may be driven to Christ. On the cross our Lord carried the penalties of the law, fulfilled in a greater way the tabernacle\/temple presence of God, fulfilled the Father’s expectations of atonement, and demonstrated the love of the Father. He, the Son and greater than Moses, gave the essence of the law in the summary of God’s requirements: love of God and love of neighbor (Mt 23:23-24; Lk 11:42-44). Jesus taught that the purpose of obedience is not primarily to receive a reward but to serve as salt (Mt 5:13) and light (Mt 5:14-16; cf. Eph 4:17–5:20), and to bear fruit (Jn 15:1-17). The purpose of the law of God is the gradual transformation of the children of God to reflect the image of the Son (Rom 8:29; 2 Cor 3:18; Col 3:10), to be an imitation of the Father (Eph 5:1-2), and to be filled with the Spirit of God (Gal 5:18, 22-24). For this purpose Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount, which summarize the intent of the teaching of Moses and the prophets (Mt 5–7).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the law is to transform regenerated believers into maturity. Spiritual maturity is not a privilege that was reserved for believers after Christ; OT saints also walked with God (Enoch, Gn 5:22-24; Noah, 6:9; Abraham, 17:1). These were mature men who lived with integrity in the presence of God (cf. Gn 17:1; Dt 18:13; Pss 15:1-2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Prv 11:5).<\/p>\n<p>Maturity, or integrity, is that response to God whereby the believer no longer needs to live by individual stipulations or in fear of mistakes and sins of omission, but delights in doing the Lord’s will (Pss 1:2; 112:1). Since the coming of Christ and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been poured out on every believer. He has come not only to internalize the law of God (Jer 31:33) but also to help us develop Christian maturity by giving the fruits of godliness in greater fullness (Gal 5:22-24). Whereas maturity and freedom were experienced by some OT saints, it is God’s gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Cor 12:13). The purpose is still the same, “so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped [mature] for every good work” (2 Tm 3:17, <span>niv<\/span>), but the means to accomplish this and the status of the child of God is so much better since Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Criminal Law and Punishment; Galatians, Letter to the; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Justification; Romans, Letter to the; Commandments, The Ten; Torah; Tradition.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","summary_en":"LAW, Biblical Concept of God’s means of consecrating his people to himself. The nature and content of “law” may change, but the goal remains the same: maturity and conformity to the image of God. Preview • Historical Context • Law in the Old Testament • Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East • Old Testament Laws • Purposes of the Law Historical Context When man was created in God’s image, he received glory, rule, and provision for his daily sustenance from the Creator-King (Gn 1:27-30). Howe...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29520,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"People of God","title_en":"People of God","content_ro":"<h3>PEOPLE OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for the collective group that believes in God. It is a common strand of Israel’s faith that it became the people of God because he chose it to be his own possession (Ex 6:6-7; 19:5; Dt 7:6; 14:2; 26:18). The idea of the covenant is linked to this (Lv 26:9-12). In the preaching of the prophets, where the judgment of God is often seen as leading to complete destruction, there is also the vision of the reestablishment and re-creation of the people of God (Jer 32:37; Hos 2:1, 23; Ez 11:20; 36:28). In the development of Judaism after the exile, the idea emerges that it is only the Israel of the future, the final messianic community, that will be “people of God” in the full sense of that term.<\/p>\n<p>It is evident from a number of passages in the NT that the church knew itself to be this future people of God. The clearest passage is 1 Peter 2:9 (<span>rsv<\/span>): “You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people.” The expressions “royal priesthood” and “holy nation” are taken from Exodus 19:6, which so powerfully expresses both the participation in God’s reign and the priestly service of the people of God in the world. Just as the original people of God were called to proclaim God’s mighty acts of deliverance (Is 43:20-21, LXX), so the new people of God are called to “declare the wonderful deeds of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light” (1 Pt 2:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Body of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEOPLE OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for the collective group that believes in God. It is a common strand of Israel’s faith that it became the people of God because he chose it to be his own possession (Ex 6:6-7; 19:5; Dt 7:6; 14:2; 26:18). The idea of the covenant is linked to this (Lv 26:9-12). In the preaching of the prophets, where the judgment of God is often seen as leading to complete destruction, there is also the vision of the reestablishment and re-creation of the people of God (Jer 32:37; Hos 2:1, 23; Ez 11:20; 36:28). In the development of Judaism after the exile, the idea emerges that it is only the Israel of the future, the final messianic community, that will be “people of God” in the full sense of that term.<\/p>\n<p>It is evident from a number of passages in the NT that the church knew itself to be this future people of God. The clearest passage is 1 Peter 2:9 (<span>rsv<\/span>): “You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people.” The expressions “royal priesthood” and “holy nation” are taken from Exodus 19:6, which so powerfully expresses both the participation in God’s reign and the priestly service of the people of God in the world. Just as the original people of God were called to proclaim God’s mighty acts of deliverance (Is 43:20-21, LXX), so the new people of God are called to “declare the wonderful deeds of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light” (1 Pt 2:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Body of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEOPLE OF GOD Designation for the collective group that believes in God. It is a common strand of Israel’s faith that it became the people of God because he chose it to be his own possession (Ex 6:6-7; 19:5; Dt 7:6; 14:2; 26:18). The idea of the covenant is linked to this (Lv 26:9-12). In the preaching of the prophets, where the judgment of God is often seen as leading to complete destruction, there is also the vision of the reestablishment and re-creation of the people of God (Jer 32:37; Hos...","summary_en":"PEOPLE OF GOD Designation for the collective group that believes in God. It is a common strand of Israel’s faith that it became the people of God because he chose it to be his own possession (Ex 6:6-7; 19:5; Dt 7:6; 14:2; 26:18). The idea of the covenant is linked to this (Lv 26:9-12). In the preaching of the prophets, where the judgment of God is often seen as leading to complete destruction, there is also the vision of the reestablishment and re-creation of the people of God (Jer 32:37; Hos...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":11503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Exodus","title_en":"the Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, The<\/h3>\n<p>Departure of Israel from Egypt led by Moses. The exodus was one of the most significant events in the history of the Hebrews. It was a unique demonstration of God’s power on behalf of his people, who were working under conditions of forced labor for the Egyptians. So dramatic were the circumstances in which the exodus occurred that they were mentioned frequently in subsequent OT periods. When the Hebrews were oppressed, they looked back to that great historical event and trusted God for future liberation.<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of the exodus from Egypt is, beyond question, one of the pivotal historical and religious points of the Jewish tradition. It is quite another matter, however, to assign a firm date to the event, partly because certain scriptural references can be interpreted in various ways, and partly because little archaeological evidence from Egypt exists that bears on the question. Since the Egyptians regularly ignored defects in their records and defaced inscriptions belonging to unpopular fellow countrymen, it is improbable that anything approaching an Egyptian literary record of the exodus will ever be obtained. Much of the information regarding the date of the exodus is therefore inferential in character, and that presents biblical historians with one of the most complex problems of chronology.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateoftheExodus\">Date of the Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Determining the date of the exodus has long been a problem for biblical scholars. At the beginning of the 20th century many scholars, both liberal and conservative, placed the date toward the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Not all of them agreed that the exodus was a single event, however. Some believed that the Hebrews entered Palestine twice at widely separated times. But such a view disregards the biblical account.<\/p>\n<p>According to Exodus 12:40, the length of time that Jacob’s descendants resided in the land of Egypt was 430 years. God had already predicted that interval of time to Abram (Gn 15:13). The Genesis prophecy, however, did not indicate when that occupation would begin.<\/p>\n<p>The Septuagint (the first Greek translation of the OT), in its version of Exodus 12:40, reduced the period of occupation in Egypt to 215 years. That may mean that two traditions of exodus history existed. A stay of four centuries may have been reckoned from the period when an Asiatic people known as the Hyksos invaded Egypt (c. 1720 <span>BC<\/span>) and governed it for about a century and a half. The period of 215 years preserved in the Septuagint may be the interval of time between the expulsion of the Hyksos and the exodus itself.<\/p>\n<p>More specific information from Israel’s early monarch, however, has a bearing on the time when the Hebrews escaped from Egypt. First Kings 6:1 indicates that Solomon constructed the temple in Jerusalem 480 years after the Israelites were led out of Egypt by Moses. Taking that figure at face value, and allowing a date of 961 <span>BC<\/span> for the reference to Solomon, the exodus would have occurred about 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. On the basis of such biblical data, some scholars argue for a 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date for the exodus, connecting it with the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1425 <span>BC<\/span>) as the time of Israel’s oppression. Other scholars feel equally persuaded that the exodus occurred in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RouteoftheExodus\">Route of the Exodus<\/p>\n<p>The biblical data concerning the route of the exodus placed the beginning of the flight at Rameses (Ex 12:37). This place was identified with Tanis by early investigators, but more recent work suggests Qantir, about 17 miles (27.4 kilometers) southwest of Tanis, as the preferred site. It now seems certain that the monuments at Tanis apparently erected by Ramses have been misunderstood. None of those monuments seems to have originated at Tanis but were brought there by later kings who reused them. Thus the primary evidence for identifying Tanis with Ramses has proved to be misleading. Excavations at Qantir, on the other hand, have revealed indications of palaces, temples, and houses, all of which were local in origin. Such evidence suggests that Qantir, not Tanis, was the Rameses from which the exodus commenced. In addition, Rameses, unlike Tanis, was located beside a body of water (the “Waters of Re” mentioned in Egyptian sources), which again conforms to the biblical account.<\/p>\n\n<p>From Rameses the Israelites moved to Succoth (Nm 33:5), generally identified with Tell el-Maskhuta, a fortification in the eastern area of the Wadi Tumeilat, west of the Bitter Lakes. From Succoth they journeyed to Etham (Ex 13:20), which was on the frontier of the wilderness of Shur. The Hebrews were then instructed to return northwestward so that the stage might be set for the events of the exodus proper. Accordingly, they encamped between Migdol and the “sea,” close to two sites called Pi-hahiroth and Baal-zephon. Pi-hahiroth may have been a lake, the “Hi-waters,” mentioned in Egyptian documents. Baal-zephon has been identified with the later Tahpanhes (Tell Defenneh) near Qantara. Both identifications lack certainty, but these places were probably located in the northeast part of the Nile River delta area near Lake Menzaleh. The “sea” was a lake of papyrus reeds, described in Exodus 15:22 as the “reed sea,” the English equivalent of an Egyptian phrase meaning “papyrus marshes.” In most English translations from the time of the <span>kjv<\/span> onward, the Hebrew for “reed sea” was rendered as “Red Sea.”<\/p>\n<p>Sources from the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> mention the existence of a large papyrus marsh in the area of Rameses that could be the one referred to in Scripture. Other suggestions equate the “reed sea” with the southeast extension of Lake Menzaleh, or with some body of water just to the south, perhaps Lake Ballah, all of which are reasonably close to each other. The topography can never be determined with complete accuracy, since the construction of the Suez Canal drained a series of lakes and swamps, of which the “reed sea” was possibly one.<\/p>\n<p>At the camp at Migdol, the Hebrews were overtaken by the pursuing Egyptians and appeared to be trapped hopelessly. Then the Lord worked one of the greatest miracles of history. He first prevented the Egyptians from encountering the Hebrews that night by means of a pillar of cloud (Ex 14:19-20). Moses raised his rod over the reed sea, and a strong east wind blew on the water all night. By morning a strip of the sea bottom had been exposed and dried out, enabling the Israelites to flee across it. When the Egyptians pursued their former slaves, Moses again raised his rod, the wind ceased, and the waters returned to normal levels, trapping the Egyptian chariots and soldiers and causing heavy losses. A victory song (Ex 15:1-21), typical of ancient Near Eastern customs in warfare, was the liberated captives’ immediate response to God.<\/p>\n<p>The parting of the waters is a phenomenon that has been observed periodically in various parts of the world. It always occurs in the same manner and involves a strong wind displacing a body of water. Shallow lakes, rivers, or marshes are parted readily under such conditions. The scriptural reference to the east wind indicates that God miraculously employed that natural phenomenon to rescue his people.<\/p>\n<p>Having escaped successfully from the Egyptians, the Hebrews journeyed to the wilderness of Shur, three traveling days away from the bitter waters of Marah (Ex 15:22-25). In Numbers 33:8 the wilderness of Shur is identified with Etham, which the Israelites had already left. Thus it appears that they had moved north from Migdol, after which they moved south again to the wilderness in the area of Etham. The Israelites were not able to go into the Sinai Peninsula along the normal routes, which were guarded by Egyptian fortresses. In addition, they had been instructed not to travel along the northward road going to the “way of the land of the Philistines” (Ex 13:17) into Canaan. Consequently, the best means of satisfying both conditions was to move southeastward to Sinai as unobtrusively as possible, taking care to avoid the access routes to Serabit el-Khadem in the central peninsula region, where the Egyptians mined turquoise and copper. The narratives of Numbers 33:9-15 show that the Israelite camps were located in an area south of the “reed sea,” proving that the refugees had not taken the northerly, or “Philistine,” route.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodusThemeinScripture\">The Exodus Theme in Scripture<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The motif of deliverance from captivity in Egypt became etched indelibly upon the Hebrew mind, particularly since it was reinforced each year by the celebration of the Passover meal (Ex 12:12-14). At each celebration thereafter the Hebrews were made aware that they had once been captives, but by the provision and power of God they were now free people—an elect nation and holy priesthood (Dt 26:19).<\/p>\n<p>In later periods psalms were written recounting Israel’s history in the light of the great liberating event of the exodus (Pss 105; 106; 114; 136). Those compositions resound with triumph and thanksgiving. Hebrew accounts of the bondage in Egypt depict the rigorous life, the oppression, and the hard labor. It is now known that there were a number of foreign groups in Egypt at the time, and that the corporal punishment suffered by the Hebrews was a normal feature of everyday Egyptian life. In short, there was no discrimination against the Hebrews as a group; instead, they enjoyed the dubious distinction of being treated like ordinary Egyptian workers. Ever after, when they were oppressed, the Hebrews could look back to the great miracle of the exodus and believe that what God had done once he could do again. That was of great consolation to the faithful exiles weeping by the waters of Babylon (Ps 137:1) as they looked forward to another exodus when God would lead them in triumph from a destroyed Babylon (v 8) back to Palestine.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>God’s mighty work at the time of the exodus was recalled on a few occasions by NT writers, even though Christ had been sacrificed as “our Passover lamb” (1 Cor 5:7, <span>niv<\/span>) by that time. In his speech before the Jerusalem Council, Stephen gave a traditional recital of OT history, mentioning the event of the Red Sea (Acts 7:36) as part of a demonstration of God’s power to change human affairs. The apostle Paul used the experience of the exodus to remind his hearers that many who were delivered from oppression at that time never reached the Promised Land (1 Cor 10:1-5). Instead of committing themselves wholly to God in trust and obedience, the Israelites fell victim to temptations of various kinds in the wilderness. Thus, Paul stressed that since it is possible for Christians to become castaways (9:27), they should cling to Christ the Rock and take their spiritual responsibilities seriously. In Hebrews 11:27-29 another historical recital lists the heroes of faith, mentioning especially Moses and his role at the exodus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Exodus, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, The<\/h3>\n<p>Departure of Israel from Egypt led by Moses. The exodus was one of the most significant events in the history of the Hebrews. It was a unique demonstration of God’s power on behalf of his people, who were working under conditions of forced labor for the Egyptians. So dramatic were the circumstances in which the exodus occurred that they were mentioned frequently in subsequent OT periods. When the Hebrews were oppressed, they looked back to that great historical event and trusted God for future liberation.<\/p>\n<p>The historicity of the exodus from Egypt is, beyond question, one of the pivotal historical and religious points of the Jewish tradition. It is quite another matter, however, to assign a firm date to the event, partly because certain scriptural references can be interpreted in various ways, and partly because little archaeological evidence from Egypt exists that bears on the question. Since the Egyptians regularly ignored defects in their records and defaced inscriptions belonging to unpopular fellow countrymen, it is improbable that anything approaching an Egyptian literary record of the exodus will ever be obtained. Much of the information regarding the date of the exodus is therefore inferential in character, and that presents biblical historians with one of the most complex problems of chronology.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateoftheExodus\">Date of the Exodus<\/p>\n<p>Determining the date of the exodus has long been a problem for biblical scholars. At the beginning of the 20th century many scholars, both liberal and conservative, placed the date toward the end of the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Not all of them agreed that the exodus was a single event, however. Some believed that the Hebrews entered Palestine twice at widely separated times. But such a view disregards the biblical account.<\/p>\n<p>According to Exodus 12:40, the length of time that Jacob’s descendants resided in the land of Egypt was 430 years. God had already predicted that interval of time to Abram (Gn 15:13). The Genesis prophecy, however, did not indicate when that occupation would begin.<\/p>\n<p>The Septuagint (the first Greek translation of the OT), in its version of Exodus 12:40, reduced the period of occupation in Egypt to 215 years. That may mean that two traditions of exodus history existed. A stay of four centuries may have been reckoned from the period when an Asiatic people known as the Hyksos invaded Egypt (c. 1720 <span>BC<\/span>) and governed it for about a century and a half. The period of 215 years preserved in the Septuagint may be the interval of time between the expulsion of the Hyksos and the exodus itself.<\/p>\n<p>More specific information from Israel’s early monarch, however, has a bearing on the time when the Hebrews escaped from Egypt. First Kings 6:1 indicates that Solomon constructed the temple in Jerusalem 480 years after the Israelites were led out of Egypt by Moses. Taking that figure at face value, and allowing a date of 961 <span>BC<\/span> for the reference to Solomon, the exodus would have occurred about 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. On the basis of such biblical data, some scholars argue for a 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date for the exodus, connecting it with the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1425 <span>BC<\/span>) as the time of Israel’s oppression. Other scholars feel equally persuaded that the exodus occurred in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"RouteoftheExodus\">Route of the Exodus<\/p>\n<p>The biblical data concerning the route of the exodus placed the beginning of the flight at Rameses (Ex 12:37). This place was identified with Tanis by early investigators, but more recent work suggests Qantir, about 17 miles (27.4 kilometers) southwest of Tanis, as the preferred site. It now seems certain that the monuments at Tanis apparently erected by Ramses have been misunderstood. None of those monuments seems to have originated at Tanis but were brought there by later kings who reused them. Thus the primary evidence for identifying Tanis with Ramses has proved to be misleading. Excavations at Qantir, on the other hand, have revealed indications of palaces, temples, and houses, all of which were local in origin. Such evidence suggests that Qantir, not Tanis, was the Rameses from which the exodus commenced. In addition, Rameses, unlike Tanis, was located beside a body of water (the “Waters of Re” mentioned in Egyptian sources), which again conforms to the biblical account.<\/p>\n\n<p>From Rameses the Israelites moved to Succoth (Nm 33:5), generally identified with Tell el-Maskhuta, a fortification in the eastern area of the Wadi Tumeilat, west of the Bitter Lakes. From Succoth they journeyed to Etham (Ex 13:20), which was on the frontier of the wilderness of Shur. The Hebrews were then instructed to return northwestward so that the stage might be set for the events of the exodus proper. Accordingly, they encamped between Migdol and the “sea,” close to two sites called Pi-hahiroth and Baal-zephon. Pi-hahiroth may have been a lake, the “Hi-waters,” mentioned in Egyptian documents. Baal-zephon has been identified with the later Tahpanhes (Tell Defenneh) near Qantara. Both identifications lack certainty, but these places were probably located in the northeast part of the Nile River delta area near Lake Menzaleh. The “sea” was a lake of papyrus reeds, described in Exodus 15:22 as the “reed sea,” the English equivalent of an Egyptian phrase meaning “papyrus marshes.” In most English translations from the time of the <span>kjv<\/span> onward, the Hebrew for “reed sea” was rendered as “Red Sea.”<\/p>\n<p>Sources from the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> mention the existence of a large papyrus marsh in the area of Rameses that could be the one referred to in Scripture. Other suggestions equate the “reed sea” with the southeast extension of Lake Menzaleh, or with some body of water just to the south, perhaps Lake Ballah, all of which are reasonably close to each other. The topography can never be determined with complete accuracy, since the construction of the Suez Canal drained a series of lakes and swamps, of which the “reed sea” was possibly one.<\/p>\n<p>At the camp at Migdol, the Hebrews were overtaken by the pursuing Egyptians and appeared to be trapped hopelessly. Then the Lord worked one of the greatest miracles of history. He first prevented the Egyptians from encountering the Hebrews that night by means of a pillar of cloud (Ex 14:19-20). Moses raised his rod over the reed sea, and a strong east wind blew on the water all night. By morning a strip of the sea bottom had been exposed and dried out, enabling the Israelites to flee across it. When the Egyptians pursued their former slaves, Moses again raised his rod, the wind ceased, and the waters returned to normal levels, trapping the Egyptian chariots and soldiers and causing heavy losses. A victory song (Ex 15:1-21), typical of ancient Near Eastern customs in warfare, was the liberated captives’ immediate response to God.<\/p>\n<p>The parting of the waters is a phenomenon that has been observed periodically in various parts of the world. It always occurs in the same manner and involves a strong wind displacing a body of water. Shallow lakes, rivers, or marshes are parted readily under such conditions. The scriptural reference to the east wind indicates that God miraculously employed that natural phenomenon to rescue his people.<\/p>\n<p>Having escaped successfully from the Egyptians, the Hebrews journeyed to the wilderness of Shur, three traveling days away from the bitter waters of Marah (Ex 15:22-25). In Numbers 33:8 the wilderness of Shur is identified with Etham, which the Israelites had already left. Thus it appears that they had moved north from Migdol, after which they moved south again to the wilderness in the area of Etham. The Israelites were not able to go into the Sinai Peninsula along the normal routes, which were guarded by Egyptian fortresses. In addition, they had been instructed not to travel along the northward road going to the “way of the land of the Philistines” (Ex 13:17) into Canaan. Consequently, the best means of satisfying both conditions was to move southeastward to Sinai as unobtrusively as possible, taking care to avoid the access routes to Serabit el-Khadem in the central peninsula region, where the Egyptians mined turquoise and copper. The narratives of Numbers 33:9-15 show that the Israelite camps were located in an area south of the “reed sea,” proving that the refugees had not taken the northerly, or “Philistine,” route.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheExodusThemeinScripture\">The Exodus Theme in Scripture<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The motif of deliverance from captivity in Egypt became etched indelibly upon the Hebrew mind, particularly since it was reinforced each year by the celebration of the Passover meal (Ex 12:12-14). At each celebration thereafter the Hebrews were made aware that they had once been captives, but by the provision and power of God they were now free people—an elect nation and holy priesthood (Dt 26:19).<\/p>\n<p>In later periods psalms were written recounting Israel’s history in the light of the great liberating event of the exodus (Pss 105; 106; 114; 136). Those compositions resound with triumph and thanksgiving. Hebrew accounts of the bondage in Egypt depict the rigorous life, the oppression, and the hard labor. It is now known that there were a number of foreign groups in Egypt at the time, and that the corporal punishment suffered by the Hebrews was a normal feature of everyday Egyptian life. In short, there was no discrimination against the Hebrews as a group; instead, they enjoyed the dubious distinction of being treated like ordinary Egyptian workers. Ever after, when they were oppressed, the Hebrews could look back to the great miracle of the exodus and believe that what God had done once he could do again. That was of great consolation to the faithful exiles weeping by the waters of Babylon (Ps 137:1) as they looked forward to another exodus when God would lead them in triumph from a destroyed Babylon (v 8) back to Palestine.<\/p>\n<h5>New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>God’s mighty work at the time of the exodus was recalled on a few occasions by NT writers, even though Christ had been sacrificed as “our Passover lamb” (1 Cor 5:7, <span>niv<\/span>) by that time. In his speech before the Jerusalem Council, Stephen gave a traditional recital of OT history, mentioning the event of the Red Sea (Acts 7:36) as part of a demonstration of God’s power to change human affairs. The apostle Paul used the experience of the exodus to remind his hearers that many who were delivered from oppression at that time never reached the Promised Land (1 Cor 10:1-5). Instead of committing themselves wholly to God in trust and obedience, the Israelites fell victim to temptations of various kinds in the wilderness. Thus, Paul stressed that since it is possible for Christians to become castaways (9:27), they should cling to Christ the Rock and take their spiritual responsibilities seriously. In Hebrews 11:27-29 another historical recital lists the heroes of faith, mentioning especially Moses and his role at the exodus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Exodus, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, The Departure of Israel from Egypt led by Moses. The exodus was one of the most significant events in the history of the Hebrews. It was a unique demonstration of God’s power on behalf of his people, who were working under conditions of forced labor for the Egyptians. So dramatic were the circumstances in which the exodus occurred that they were mentioned frequently in subsequent OT periods. When the Hebrews were oppressed, they looked back to that great historical event and trusted G...","summary_en":"EXODUS, The Departure of Israel from Egypt led by Moses. The exodus was one of the most significant events in the history of the Hebrews. It was a unique demonstration of God’s power on behalf of his people, who were working under conditions of forced labor for the Egyptians. So dramatic were the circumstances in which the exodus occurred that they were mentioned frequently in subsequent OT periods. When the Hebrews were oppressed, they looked back to that great historical event and trusted G...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Deuteronom 26
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Deuteronom 26
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