Eclesiastul 12
1 Dar adu-ţi aminte de Făcătorul tău în zilele tinereţei tale, până nu vin zilele cele rele şi până nu se apropie anii, când vei zice: ,,Nu găsesc nici o plăcere în ei``;
2 până nu se întunecă soarele, şi lumina, luna şi stelele, şi până nu se întorc norii îndată după ploaie;
3 până nu încep să tremure paznicii casei (mânile), şi să se încovoaie cele tari (picioarele); până nu se opresc ceice macină (dinţii), căci s-au împuţinat; până nu se întunecă ceice se uită pe ferestre (ochii);
4 până nu se închid cele două uşi dinspre uliţă (buzele), când uruitul morii slăbeşte, te scoli la ciripitul unei pasări, glasul tuturor cântăreţelor se aude înăbuşit,
5 te temi de orice înălţime, şi te sperii pe drum; până nu înfloreşte migdalul cu peri albi, şi de abea se târăşte lăcusta, până nu-ţi trec poftele, căci omul merge spre casa lui cea vecinică, şi bocitorii cutreieră uliţele;
6 până nu se rupe funia de argint, până nu se sfarmă vasul de aur, până nu se sparge găleata la izvor, şi până nu se strică roata dela fântână;
7 până nu se întoarce ţărâna în pământ, cum a fost, şi până nu se întoarce duhul la Dumnezeu, care l-a dat.
8 O, deşertăciune a deşertăciunilor, zice Eclesiastul; totul este deşertăciune.
9 Pe lângă că Eclesiastul a fost înţelept, el a mai învăţat şi ştiinţa pe popor, a cercetat, a adâncit şi a întocmit un mare număr de zicători.
10 Eclesiastul a căutat să afle cuvinte plăcute, şi să scrie întocmai cuvintele adevărului.
11 Cuvintele înţelepţilor sânt ca nişte bolduri; şi, strânse la un loc, sânt ca nişte cuie bătute, date de un singur stăpân.
12 Încolo, fiule, ia învăţătură din aceste lucruri; dacă ai voi să faci o mulţime de cărţi, să ştii că n-ai mai isprăvi, şi multă învăţătură oboseşte trupul.
13 Să ascultăm dar încheierea tuturor învăţăturilor: Teme-te de Dumnezeu şi păzeşte poruncile Lui. Aceasta este datoria oricărui om.
14 Căci Dumnezeu va aduce orice faptă la judecată, şi judecata aceasta se va face cu privire la tot ce este ascuns, fie bine, fie rău
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":739,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Age","title_en":"Age","content_ro":"<h3>AGE<\/h3>\n<p>Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, <span>rsv<\/span>). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49).<\/p>\n<p>The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4) and “the age(s) to come” when, in God’s judgment, wrongs will be righted, and his people will come into their full inheritance (Mk 10:30). There is a sense, however, in which it can be said that we are both living now in “the end of the ages” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>) and that we experience “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:5, <span>rsv<\/span>) and its life.<\/p>\n<p>Two other words are sometimes connected with the word “age.” One is “generation.” Colossians 1:26 speaks of the mystery hidden “for ages and generations” (<span>rsv<\/span>, cf. Eph 3:21), though there is no basis in the scriptural use of these words for dividing biblical times into dispensations, each involving some fresh development of the redemptive purpose of God. The other is the word “world.” Ephesians 2:2 speaks of unredeemed humanity as “following the course of this world” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Hebrews 1:2 and 11:3 speak of God’s creation of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often speaks of the age of men and women, reckoned in years or in other ways. Wisdom is seen as belonging especially to the aged (Jb 12:12), though not necessarily found there (Eccl 4:13). Age should be respected (Lv 19:32), and length of days is a blessing of God (Prv 16:31). At the same time, the frailty of old age is recognized (Eccl 12:1-6), and Psalm 90:10 speaks of 70 years as the allotted human span which, if it is extended to 80, may well be “trouble and sorrow.” <em>See<\/em> Eternity.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AGE<\/h3>\n<p>Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, <span>rsv<\/span>). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49).<\/p>\n<p>The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4) and “the age(s) to come” when, in God’s judgment, wrongs will be righted, and his people will come into their full inheritance (Mk 10:30). There is a sense, however, in which it can be said that we are both living now in “the end of the ages” (1 Cor 10:11, <span>rsv<\/span>) and that we experience “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:5, <span>rsv<\/span>) and its life.<\/p>\n<p>Two other words are sometimes connected with the word “age.” One is “generation.” Colossians 1:26 speaks of the mystery hidden “for ages and generations” (<span>rsv<\/span>, cf. Eph 3:21), though there is no basis in the scriptural use of these words for dividing biblical times into dispensations, each involving some fresh development of the redemptive purpose of God. The other is the word “world.” Ephesians 2:2 speaks of unredeemed humanity as “following the course of this world” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Hebrews 1:2 and 11:3 speak of God’s creation of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible often speaks of the age of men and women, reckoned in years or in other ways. Wisdom is seen as belonging especially to the aged (Jb 12:12), though not necessarily found there (Eccl 4:13). Age should be respected (Lv 19:32), and length of days is a blessing of God (Prv 16:31). At the same time, the frailty of old age is recognized (Eccl 12:1-6), and Psalm 90:10 speaks of 70 years as the allotted human span which, if it is extended to 80, may well be “trouble and sorrow.” <em>See<\/em> Eternity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AGE Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, rsv). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49). The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4)...","summary_en":"AGE Long, but indefinite, period of time, past or future. The ages, past and future, make up the whole of time. God is spoken of as existing and planning “before the ages” (1 Cor 2:7, rsv). He is the King of ages (1 Tm 1:17) and has a purpose that embraces the ages (Eph 3:11). The Bible speaks of what God will do at the close or consummation of the age(s) (Mt 13:39-49). The NT, following on from earlier Jewish writings, speaks of the contrast between “the present age” (an “evil age,” Gal 1:4)...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10068,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ecclesiastes","title_en":"Book of Ecclesiastes","content_ro":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","summary_en":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23499,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Lord’s Supper","title_en":"the Lord’s Supper","content_ro":"<h3>LORD’S SUPPER, The<\/h3>\n<p>The supper Jesus shared with his disciples a few hours before he was arrested and taken to his trial and death (thus often called “The Last Supper”); the ceremony of partaking of the bread and wine that Christians have come to call the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:20), the breaking of bread (Acts 2:42, 46; 20:7), Holy Communion (from the expression of 1 Cor 10:16), the Eucharist (the Greek word for “thanksgiving,” see Mk 14:23), or the Mass. The apostle Paul speaks of handing on what he had “received from the Lord” concerning the institution of this supper “on the night when he was betrayed.” Like Luke, Paul gives the Lord’s command to his disciples: “Do this in remembrance of me” (1 Cor 11:24-25). According to Acts 2, the early Christians from the beginning of the life of the church met regularly for “the breaking of bread.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Accounts of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Time of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• Words and Actions of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Practice of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• Paul’s Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAccountsoftheInstitution\">The Accounts of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the Lord’s Supper is recorded in Matthew 26:26-30; Mark 14:22-26; and Luke 22:14-20. John’s Gospel (ch 13) tells of the Last Supper Jesus shared with his disciples, of his washing the disciples’ feet and the teaching associated with that, but does not mention his institution of Communion. Many see the Lord’s Supper reflected in the teaching of John 6, following the miracle of the feeding of the 5,000 and Jesus’ speaking of himself as “the bread of life,” but this is open to question. First Corinthians 11:23-26 gives Paul’s version of the institution, which he speaks of as “receiving” and “delivering” to the Corinthian Christians.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke 22:17-18 Jesus is said to have passed the cup to the disciples with the words “Take this, and divide it among yourselves” before taking the bread and giving it to them. In most early manuscripts there is then a second cup after the giving of the bread. This difference of Luke from the other Gospels and from Paul has been variously explained, but whether there are two cups of wine at the supper or a different order in the giving of the bread and the wine, it makes no essential difference to the fact and the meaning of the institution.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTimeoftheInstitution\">The Time of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>All of the narratives—the three Gospels and 1 Corinthians—speak of the Last Supper when the Eucharist was instituted as taking place a few hours before Jesus’ arrest. All four Gospels tell, in this context, of Jesus’ words to his disciples, about Judas’s betrayal, and about Jesus telling Peter that he would deny his Master. Matthew (Mt 26:17-20), Mark (Mk 14:12-17), and Luke (Lk 22:7-14) all say clearly that this Last Supper was prepared by the disciples and kept by Jesus with them as a Passover meal. John speaks of it as happening “before the feast of the Passover” and then says that at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate the Jewish leaders “did not enter the praetorium, so that they might not be defiled, but might eat the passover” (Jn 13:1; 18:28, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Various explanations of this difference between John and the other Gospels have been suggested, such as that different groups of the Jews kept the Passover at different times, that the meal in the upper room was not strictly a Passover but a fellowship meal at the Passover season, or that Jesus deliberately chose for his own special reasons to celebrate the Passover before the normal time. Luke 22:15 gives his words, “I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer” (<span>rsv<\/span>). However the differences between the Gospels may be explained, and whenever the gathering around the table took place, it is clear that the Last Supper had the significance of a Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, there is an inevitable similarity between the celebration of the Passover as a feast of the old covenant and the Lord’s Supper as a feast of the new. The former looks back with thankful remembrance to the people’s redemption and liberation from Egypt by the act of God, associated with the sacrifice of the Passover lamb. The latter looks back with thankful remembrance to redemption by the act of God through the sacrifice of Christ. The apostle Paul links the two: “Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed” (1 Cor 5:7, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WordsandActionsoftheInstitution\">Words and Actions of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>The association of the Last Supper with the Passover points to the importance of the OT background for our understanding of the meaning of the Lord’s Supper. This OT background is equally important in understanding the words and actions of Jesus in the upper room.<\/p>\n<h5>“This is my body.”<\/h5>\n<p>The actions of Jesus in taking the bread are described similarly in Matthew (Mt 26:26), Mark (Mk 14:22), Luke (Lk 22:19), and 1 Corinthians (1 Cor 11:23-24). Jesus took the bread, gave thanks to God (“blessing” has the same meaning in the biblical context), and broke it. It is noteworthy that the same three actions are described in the records of the feeding of the 5,000 and of the 4,000 (Mk 6:41; 8:6). What he said, according to all four accounts of the Last Supper, was “This is my body.” Christians in Catholic, Orthodox, and various Protestant traditions have differed in their understanding of the precise meaning of those words. What is clear is that in the taking of the bread there is the realization of Jesus’ giving himself, his body to be broken on the cross, his life offered that we, in and through him, might have life. First Corinthians 11:24 gives the words as “This is my body which is for you,” and some early manuscripts have “broken for you.”<\/p>\n<h5>“Do this in remembrance of me.”<\/h5>\n<p>This specific instruction is found only in Luke 22:19 and 1 Corinthians 11:24. Some have argued that the absence of the words in the other Gospel records indicates that it was not the explicit intention of the Lord that what he did at the Last Supper was to be repeated as a Christian sacrament. Yet all the Gospels were written when the breaking of bread had been a regular practice in the life of the church for years. Matthew and Mark, therefore, may have thought it unnecessary to express Jesus’ intention with those words. They were taken for granted.<\/p>\n<p>It must also be said that these words have been interpreted differently in various Christian traditions. Many Protestant Christians have understood them to mean that in the Holy Communion we are to recall with great thankfulness that Christ loved us and gave himself to die for us. In the Roman Catholic Church the word “remembrance” has been understood as a memorial before God, a representing of the sacrifice of Christ before the Father. “This do” has been interpreted as meaning “offer this,” and even in the second century Christian writers spoke of the Eucharist as a “sacrifice.” Protestant Christians generally have felt the danger of this way of speaking; it can detract from, or even deny, the biblical understanding of the sacrifice of Christ having been offered once and for all, sufficiently atoning for the sins of the world (cf. Heb 7:27; 9:12). It must be said, however, that many Roman Catholic statements today stress the sufficiency and completeness of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross; and many Protestant scholars, while not wishing to introduce a sacrificial understanding of the Lord’s Supper, stress that “remembrance” is more than simply calling to mind a past action. In biblical thinking “remembrance” often involves a realization and appropriation in the present of what has been done or what has proved true in the past (see Pss 98:3; 106:45; 112:6; Eccl 12:1; Is 57:11).<\/p>\n<h5>“This is my blood of the [new] covenant.”<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus took the cup of wine, gave thanks, and handed it to his disciples for them all to drink. In essence the four accounts of the institution agree. Matthew (Mt 26:28) and Mark (Mk 14:24) give the words of Jesus as “This is my blood of the [new] covenant.” Luke 22:20 has “This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood,” and 1 Corinthians 11:25 is similar to this. This refers back to the ritual of making a covenant with the offering of sacrifice, as the covenant between God and Israel after the exodus (Ex 24:1-8). Implied also is that the prophetic hope of the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34) was fulfilled in Jesus, as Hebrews 8–9 describes.<\/p>\n<h5>“Poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.”<\/h5>\n<p>The meaning of the death of Jesus as a sacrifice is linked with the understanding of the Passover and of the covenant. It is also linked with what Isaiah 53 says of the suffering Servant making himself “an offering for sin” (Is 53:10). Luke 22:37 includes among the words of Jesus in the upper room the statement, “This scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was reckoned with transgressors.’ ” That verse, Isaiah 53:12, also says, “he poured out his soul to death” and “he bore the sin of many.” Mark 14:24 appears to allude to these Scriptures when Jesus speaks of his blood “poured out for many,” and Matthew 26:28 adds “for the forgiveness of sins.”<\/p>\n<h5>Expectation for the Future<\/h5>\n<p>All four accounts of the Last Supper associate, though in different ways, an expectation for the future with the institution of the Eucharist. In Mark 14:25 it comes in the words of Jesus, “Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In Matthew 26:29 that future drinking of the fruit of the vine is said to be “with you in my Father’s kingdom.” In Luke 22:18 there are similar words, and two verses earlier the statement about fulfilling the Passover “in the kingdom of God.” All of these can be understood as the ultimate realization of another hope that both OT and later Jewish apocalyptic writings set forward: the messianic banquet, the feast on the mountain of the Lord of which Isaiah 25:6 speaks. In 1 Corinthians 11:26 that future hope is quite explicitly that of Christ’s second coming; for, says the apostle, “As often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePracticeoftheEarlyChurch\">The Practice of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>In Acts 2:42, after the record of what happened at Pentecost, it says “they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Further, “day by day, attending the temple together and breaking bread in their homes, they partook of food with glad and generous hearts” (Acts 2:46, <span>rsv<\/span>). Two questions are raised about these words and the practice that lay behind them. Do they simply mean that the Christians shared fellowship meals together? Acts 2:46 seems to speak of breaking bread and partaking of food as two separate actions. Moreover, Acts 20:7 in speaking of Christians at Troas “on the first day of the week . . . gathered together to break bread” seems clearly to allude to a Christian service and not just a meal. From 1 Corinthians 10 and perhaps from the reference to “love feasts” in Jude 12, we may reasonably deduce that a meal in Christian fellowship and the celebration of the Lord’s Supper often took place together. A second question is whether the earliest “breaking of bread,” as in the Jerusalem church, may have been a different rite from that with the bread and wine, the former recalling the fellowship of the disciples with the risen Lord, the latter especially recalling his sacrificial death. There is no direct evidence to support such a view. The Lord’s Supper to which the Gospels bear witness involved the breaking of bread and the sharing of the cup in remembrance of the blood of Christ “poured out for many.” We may assume, too, that the tradition that the apostle Paul received, followed, and passed on to others went back to his earliest years as a Christian and so involved the breaking of the bread and the sharing of the cup in remembrance of Christ, and thus proclaiming the Lord’s death until his return.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaulsTeaching\">Paul’s Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s teaching, as in the Gospels, the Lord’s Supper clearly involves the backward look in thankful remembrance for the sacrifice of Christ offered once for all for the sins of the world, the realization of the Lord being with his people in the present, and the look forward in hope. Other aspects of teaching relating to the Eucharist are brought out in 1 Corinthians 10–11. The teaching arises from practical aspects of the situation in the Corinthian church; the need to be aware of the danger of turning back in any way to the worship of idols; and the potential divisions in the Christian fellowship, including that between rich and poor.<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship with Christ<\/h5>\n<p>To partake of the bread and to drink of the cup is spoken of as having part with Christ, as sharing in sacrificial meals would mean partaking at “the table of demons” (1 Cor 10:21). “The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ?” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). “Participation” is the translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> so often rendered “fellowship” in NT passages. When the Lord’s Supper was celebrated, there must often have been a recalling not only of the Last Supper on the night before Jesus died, but also of his presence with his disciples on the first Easter and his making himself known to them in the breaking of the bread (Lk 24:30-35). They continued to experience that fellowship with him.<\/p>\n<h5>Feeding on Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Of the two Christian sacraments, baptism has a once-for-all nature, while Holy Communion is repeated. The life of Christ has been offered for sins once for all on the cross, and we find life in turning to him—baptism signifies that. At the same time that life is also offered to us constantly for the nourishing of our spiritual lives day by day—of this regular feeding on Christ the Eucharist speaks. First Corinthians 10:3-4 speaks of “supernatural food” and “supernatural drink” and finds in the events at the sea and in the wilderness in the days of Moses foreshadowings of what Christians find in Christ. Christ said, “I am the bread of life,” and “My flesh is food indeed, and my blood is drink indeed”; thus what we have in John’s Gospel (Jn 6:35, 55, <span>rsv<\/span>) is close to what Paul implies about the Lord’s Supper expressing the truth of Christians spiritually feeding on Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LORD’S SUPPER, The<\/h3>\n<p>The supper Jesus shared with his disciples a few hours before he was arrested and taken to his trial and death (thus often called “The Last Supper”); the ceremony of partaking of the bread and wine that Christians have come to call the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:20), the breaking of bread (Acts 2:42, 46; 20:7), Holy Communion (from the expression of 1 Cor 10:16), the Eucharist (the Greek word for “thanksgiving,” see Mk 14:23), or the Mass. The apostle Paul speaks of handing on what he had “received from the Lord” concerning the institution of this supper “on the night when he was betrayed.” Like Luke, Paul gives the Lord’s command to his disciples: “Do this in remembrance of me” (1 Cor 11:24-25). According to Acts 2, the early Christians from the beginning of the life of the church met regularly for “the breaking of bread.”<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Accounts of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Time of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• Words and Actions of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>• The Practice of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• Paul’s Teaching<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheAccountsoftheInstitution\">The Accounts of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the Lord’s Supper is recorded in Matthew 26:26-30; Mark 14:22-26; and Luke 22:14-20. John’s Gospel (ch 13) tells of the Last Supper Jesus shared with his disciples, of his washing the disciples’ feet and the teaching associated with that, but does not mention his institution of Communion. Many see the Lord’s Supper reflected in the teaching of John 6, following the miracle of the feeding of the 5,000 and Jesus’ speaking of himself as “the bread of life,” but this is open to question. First Corinthians 11:23-26 gives Paul’s version of the institution, which he speaks of as “receiving” and “delivering” to the Corinthian Christians.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke 22:17-18 Jesus is said to have passed the cup to the disciples with the words “Take this, and divide it among yourselves” before taking the bread and giving it to them. In most early manuscripts there is then a second cup after the giving of the bread. This difference of Luke from the other Gospels and from Paul has been variously explained, but whether there are two cups of wine at the supper or a different order in the giving of the bread and the wine, it makes no essential difference to the fact and the meaning of the institution.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTimeoftheInstitution\">The Time of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>All of the narratives—the three Gospels and 1 Corinthians—speak of the Last Supper when the Eucharist was instituted as taking place a few hours before Jesus’ arrest. All four Gospels tell, in this context, of Jesus’ words to his disciples, about Judas’s betrayal, and about Jesus telling Peter that he would deny his Master. Matthew (Mt 26:17-20), Mark (Mk 14:12-17), and Luke (Lk 22:7-14) all say clearly that this Last Supper was prepared by the disciples and kept by Jesus with them as a Passover meal. John speaks of it as happening “before the feast of the Passover” and then says that at the time of the trial of Jesus before Pilate the Jewish leaders “did not enter the praetorium, so that they might not be defiled, but might eat the passover” (Jn 13:1; 18:28, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Various explanations of this difference between John and the other Gospels have been suggested, such as that different groups of the Jews kept the Passover at different times, that the meal in the upper room was not strictly a Passover but a fellowship meal at the Passover season, or that Jesus deliberately chose for his own special reasons to celebrate the Passover before the normal time. Luke 22:15 gives his words, “I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer” (<span>rsv<\/span>). However the differences between the Gospels may be explained, and whenever the gathering around the table took place, it is clear that the Last Supper had the significance of a Passover meal.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, there is an inevitable similarity between the celebration of the Passover as a feast of the old covenant and the Lord’s Supper as a feast of the new. The former looks back with thankful remembrance to the people’s redemption and liberation from Egypt by the act of God, associated with the sacrifice of the Passover lamb. The latter looks back with thankful remembrance to redemption by the act of God through the sacrifice of Christ. The apostle Paul links the two: “Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed” (1 Cor 5:7, <span>niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WordsandActionsoftheInstitution\">Words and Actions of the Institution<\/p>\n<p>The association of the Last Supper with the Passover points to the importance of the OT background for our understanding of the meaning of the Lord’s Supper. This OT background is equally important in understanding the words and actions of Jesus in the upper room.<\/p>\n<h5>“This is my body.”<\/h5>\n<p>The actions of Jesus in taking the bread are described similarly in Matthew (Mt 26:26), Mark (Mk 14:22), Luke (Lk 22:19), and 1 Corinthians (1 Cor 11:23-24). Jesus took the bread, gave thanks to God (“blessing” has the same meaning in the biblical context), and broke it. It is noteworthy that the same three actions are described in the records of the feeding of the 5,000 and of the 4,000 (Mk 6:41; 8:6). What he said, according to all four accounts of the Last Supper, was “This is my body.” Christians in Catholic, Orthodox, and various Protestant traditions have differed in their understanding of the precise meaning of those words. What is clear is that in the taking of the bread there is the realization of Jesus’ giving himself, his body to be broken on the cross, his life offered that we, in and through him, might have life. First Corinthians 11:24 gives the words as “This is my body which is for you,” and some early manuscripts have “broken for you.”<\/p>\n<h5>“Do this in remembrance of me.”<\/h5>\n<p>This specific instruction is found only in Luke 22:19 and 1 Corinthians 11:24. Some have argued that the absence of the words in the other Gospel records indicates that it was not the explicit intention of the Lord that what he did at the Last Supper was to be repeated as a Christian sacrament. Yet all the Gospels were written when the breaking of bread had been a regular practice in the life of the church for years. Matthew and Mark, therefore, may have thought it unnecessary to express Jesus’ intention with those words. They were taken for granted.<\/p>\n<p>It must also be said that these words have been interpreted differently in various Christian traditions. Many Protestant Christians have understood them to mean that in the Holy Communion we are to recall with great thankfulness that Christ loved us and gave himself to die for us. In the Roman Catholic Church the word “remembrance” has been understood as a memorial before God, a representing of the sacrifice of Christ before the Father. “This do” has been interpreted as meaning “offer this,” and even in the second century Christian writers spoke of the Eucharist as a “sacrifice.” Protestant Christians generally have felt the danger of this way of speaking; it can detract from, or even deny, the biblical understanding of the sacrifice of Christ having been offered once and for all, sufficiently atoning for the sins of the world (cf. Heb 7:27; 9:12). It must be said, however, that many Roman Catholic statements today stress the sufficiency and completeness of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross; and many Protestant scholars, while not wishing to introduce a sacrificial understanding of the Lord’s Supper, stress that “remembrance” is more than simply calling to mind a past action. In biblical thinking “remembrance” often involves a realization and appropriation in the present of what has been done or what has proved true in the past (see Pss 98:3; 106:45; 112:6; Eccl 12:1; Is 57:11).<\/p>\n<h5>“This is my blood of the [new] covenant.”<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus took the cup of wine, gave thanks, and handed it to his disciples for them all to drink. In essence the four accounts of the institution agree. Matthew (Mt 26:28) and Mark (Mk 14:24) give the words of Jesus as “This is my blood of the [new] covenant.” Luke 22:20 has “This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood,” and 1 Corinthians 11:25 is similar to this. This refers back to the ritual of making a covenant with the offering of sacrifice, as the covenant between God and Israel after the exodus (Ex 24:1-8). Implied also is that the prophetic hope of the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34) was fulfilled in Jesus, as Hebrews 8–9 describes.<\/p>\n<h5>“Poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins.”<\/h5>\n<p>The meaning of the death of Jesus as a sacrifice is linked with the understanding of the Passover and of the covenant. It is also linked with what Isaiah 53 says of the suffering Servant making himself “an offering for sin” (Is 53:10). Luke 22:37 includes among the words of Jesus in the upper room the statement, “This scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was reckoned with transgressors.’ ” That verse, Isaiah 53:12, also says, “he poured out his soul to death” and “he bore the sin of many.” Mark 14:24 appears to allude to these Scriptures when Jesus speaks of his blood “poured out for many,” and Matthew 26:28 adds “for the forgiveness of sins.”<\/p>\n<h5>Expectation for the Future<\/h5>\n<p>All four accounts of the Last Supper associate, though in different ways, an expectation for the future with the institution of the Eucharist. In Mark 14:25 it comes in the words of Jesus, “Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In Matthew 26:29 that future drinking of the fruit of the vine is said to be “with you in my Father’s kingdom.” In Luke 22:18 there are similar words, and two verses earlier the statement about fulfilling the Passover “in the kingdom of God.” All of these can be understood as the ultimate realization of another hope that both OT and later Jewish apocalyptic writings set forward: the messianic banquet, the feast on the mountain of the Lord of which Isaiah 25:6 speaks. In 1 Corinthians 11:26 that future hope is quite explicitly that of Christ’s second coming; for, says the apostle, “As often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThePracticeoftheEarlyChurch\">The Practice of the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>In Acts 2:42, after the record of what happened at Pentecost, it says “they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Further, “day by day, attending the temple together and breaking bread in their homes, they partook of food with glad and generous hearts” (Acts 2:46, <span>rsv<\/span>). Two questions are raised about these words and the practice that lay behind them. Do they simply mean that the Christians shared fellowship meals together? Acts 2:46 seems to speak of breaking bread and partaking of food as two separate actions. Moreover, Acts 20:7 in speaking of Christians at Troas “on the first day of the week . . . gathered together to break bread” seems clearly to allude to a Christian service and not just a meal. From 1 Corinthians 10 and perhaps from the reference to “love feasts” in Jude 12, we may reasonably deduce that a meal in Christian fellowship and the celebration of the Lord’s Supper often took place together. A second question is whether the earliest “breaking of bread,” as in the Jerusalem church, may have been a different rite from that with the bread and wine, the former recalling the fellowship of the disciples with the risen Lord, the latter especially recalling his sacrificial death. There is no direct evidence to support such a view. The Lord’s Supper to which the Gospels bear witness involved the breaking of bread and the sharing of the cup in remembrance of the blood of Christ “poured out for many.” We may assume, too, that the tradition that the apostle Paul received, followed, and passed on to others went back to his earliest years as a Christian and so involved the breaking of the bread and the sharing of the cup in remembrance of Christ, and thus proclaiming the Lord’s death until his return.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaulsTeaching\">Paul’s Teaching<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s teaching, as in the Gospels, the Lord’s Supper clearly involves the backward look in thankful remembrance for the sacrifice of Christ offered once for all for the sins of the world, the realization of the Lord being with his people in the present, and the look forward in hope. Other aspects of teaching relating to the Eucharist are brought out in 1 Corinthians 10–11. The teaching arises from practical aspects of the situation in the Corinthian church; the need to be aware of the danger of turning back in any way to the worship of idols; and the potential divisions in the Christian fellowship, including that between rich and poor.<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship with Christ<\/h5>\n<p>To partake of the bread and to drink of the cup is spoken of as having part with Christ, as sharing in sacrificial meals would mean partaking at “the table of demons” (1 Cor 10:21). “The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a participation in the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not a participation in the body of Christ?” (v 16, <span>rsv<\/span>). “Participation” is the translation of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> so often rendered “fellowship” in NT passages. When the Lord’s Supper was celebrated, there must often have been a recalling not only of the Last Supper on the night before Jesus died, but also of his presence with his disciples on the first Easter and his making himself known to them in the breaking of the bread (Lk 24:30-35). They continued to experience that fellowship with him.<\/p>\n<h5>Feeding on Christ<\/h5>\n<p>Of the two Christian sacraments, baptism has a once-for-all nature, while Holy Communion is repeated. The life of Christ has been offered for sins once for all on the cross, and we find life in turning to him—baptism signifies that. At the same time that life is also offered to us constantly for the nourishing of our spiritual lives day by day—of this regular feeding on Christ the Eucharist speaks. First Corinthians 10:3-4 speaks of “supernatural food” and “supernatural drink” and finds in the events at the sea and in the wilderness in the days of Moses foreshadowings of what Christians find in Christ. Christ said, “I am the bread of life,” and “My flesh is food indeed, and my blood is drink indeed”; thus what we have in John’s Gospel (Jn 6:35, 55, <span>rsv<\/span>) is close to what Paul implies about the Lord’s Supper expressing the truth of Christians spiritually feeding on Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LORD’S SUPPER, The The supper Jesus shared with his disciples a few hours before he was arrested and taken to his trial and death (thus often called “The Last Supper”); the ceremony of partaking of the bread and wine that Christians have come to call the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:20), the breaking of bread (Acts 2:42, 46; 20:7), Holy Communion (from the expression of 1 Cor 10:16), the Eucharist (the Greek word for “thanksgiving,” see Mk 14:23), or the Mass. The apostle Paul speaks of handing on...","summary_en":"LORD’S SUPPER, The The supper Jesus shared with his disciples a few hours before he was arrested and taken to his trial and death (thus often called “The Last Supper”); the ceremony of partaking of the bread and wine that Christians have come to call the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:20), the breaking of bread (Acts 2:42, 46; 20:7), Holy Communion (from the expression of 1 Cor 10:16), the Eucharist (the Greek word for “thanksgiving,” see Mk 14:23), or the Mass. The apostle Paul speaks of handing on...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50909,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","summary_en":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50910,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","summary_en":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78535,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","summary_en":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78536,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","summary_en":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106161,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","summary_en":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106162,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","summary_en":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133787,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-7<\/strong> This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","summary_en":"12:1-7 This beautiful prose poem, which uses many metaphors in Hebrew, describes the torturous deterioration of aging (in continuation of 11:7-10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133788,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:1","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:1-2<\/strong> <em>Don’t . . . forget your Creator:<\/em> Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to <em>remember<\/em> God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","summary_en":"12:1-2 Don’t . . . forget your Creator: Reverence for God can give wisdom (Prov 1:7) and guidance as to what will be beneficial in this life and pleasing to God at the judgment (Eccl 12:13-14). It is better to remember God when young, when wisdom can make a real difference in life’s results.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60089,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63162,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63706,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","title_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","summary_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63722,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87715,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90788,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91332,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","title_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","summary_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91348,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115341,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118414,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118958,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","title_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","summary_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118974,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142967,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Death<\/h3>\n<p>Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29).<\/p>\n<p>Death entered the human race by sin and brought ruin to it; death comes suddenly, bringing mourning and an apparent end to hopes and dreams. Death is the severest penalty in human justice. In the Old Testament, the death penalty was a punishment for murder (Gen 9:6; Exod 21:12) or blasphemy (Lev 24:16; John 10:30-33)—violations that threatened the living community.<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the opposite of “the land of the living” (Ps 27:13) was <em>Sheol,<\/em> the realm of the dead that was shrouded in darkness and silence (Job 10:21-22; Ps 94:17; Jon 2:6). Yet even in death, God’s people cannot be separated from his presence (see Prov 14:32). God is sovereign and rules over death (Deut 32:39).<\/p>\n<p>While the Old Testament often speaks of death simply in terms of joining one’s ancestors—without specific reference to resurrection (see, e.g., Gen 49:29-33)—there are some allusions to resurrection (see Job 19:25-27; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; Dan 12:2). Jewish belief in resurrection seems to have become more widespread during the intertestamental period, and resurrection is a prominent theme in the New Testament. Through Christ, God’s redeemed people will triumph over death (1 Cor 15:54-57), the last enemy to be destroyed (1 Cor 15:26). Death results from sin (Rom 5:12), and those who live in sin and refuse to turn to God will be punished in the lake of fire in what is called the second death (Rev 21:8). But Christ’s death defeated death, and his resurrection serves as the paradigm for all believers (Col 1:18). He is the Lord of the living and of the dead (Rom 14:9). The time of death—when the natural inclination is to mourn—should also be the time of the greatest demonstration of faith, for the recipient of God’s promises has a hope beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 2:15-17; 3:19; 6:17; 9:5-6; 49:29-33; Exod 21:12-17, 28-29; 23:7; 31:14-15; Lev 24:16; Deut 32:39; Job 10:18-22; 19:25-27; Pss 90:1-12; 94:17; Prov 14:32; Eccl 12:1-7; Isa 25:6-9; 26:19; 40:6-8; Dan 12:2-3; Mark 12:26-27; Rom 5:12-17; 1 Cor 15:20-26, 51-58; Rev 20:4-6, 11-15; 21:3-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","summary_en":"Death Humans are mortal, and death is the natural end of earthly life (Ps 90:1-6). Human identity began with the earth’s dust being animated by the breath of God (Gen 2:7). This passive state returns at death as God withdraws his breath and the human body collapses again into dust (3:19; Job 4:19-21; Isa 40:6-8). Human life depends entirely and continuously on the Creator of life—his breath is a gift that sustains us in life for as long as he grants it (Ps 104:29). Death entered the human rac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146040,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146584,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","title_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Enjoying God’s Gifts<\/h3>\n<p>The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, drink, health, proper clothes, our loving spouse, children, daily work, and entertainment. It may be surprising to hear such joy in Ecclesiastes, a book that acknowledges such intense tragedy and frustration. But it is exactly this balance of joy and sorrow that characterizes the wise person who reflects on all of life and understands its complexities in a fallen world.<\/p>\n<p>It is when we treat the things of life and their enjoyment as ends in themselves that they are deterrents to happiness. The Teacher speaks strongly against the pursuit of pleasure for its own sake as foolish and without profit (2:1-2; 7:4; 10:16-19; see also Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament encourages us to be joyful in all things, including trials and challenges (Phil 4:4; Jas 1:2). One tradition in Christianity states that “the chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever” (<em>Westminster Shorter Catechism,<\/em> Question 1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Eccl 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 4:6; 5:18-20; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10; Isa 22:13; 56:12; Luke 12:19-20; Phil 4:4; Col 2:20-22; Jas 1:2; 4:13-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","summary_en":"Enjoying God’s Gifts The conclusion of many of the Teacher’s reflections in Ecclesiastes is that we are responsible for enjoying life because it is God’s gift (see 2:24-25; 3:12-13, 22; 5:18; 6:9; 8:15; 9:7-9; 11:7-10). Although there are conditions in which it would seemingly be better not to be alive, life is meant to be enjoyed with laughing, dancing, love, and peace. It is especially worth living when old age and death challenge that joy (9:4, 10; 11:7-9; 12:1). We are to enjoy our food, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146600,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":50911,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:3","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","summary_en":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78537,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:3","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","summary_en":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106163,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:3","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","summary_en":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133789,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:3","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:3<\/strong> The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (<em>guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women<\/em>) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (<em>legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes<\/em>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","summary_en":"12:3 The NLT translates the Hebrew metaphors (guards . . . strong men . . . servants . . . women) and also provides an interpretation of these poetic elements (legs . . . shoulders . . . teeth . . . eyes).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":30570,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50912,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:5","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","summary_en":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78538,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:5","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","summary_en":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106164,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:5","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","summary_en":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133790,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:5","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:5<\/strong> The <em>caperberry<\/em> was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","summary_en":"12:5 The caperberry was well known in the ancient Near East as an aphrodisiac.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":40050,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Figurative Use of “Cistern”","title_en":"Figurative Use of “Cistern”","content_ro":"<h3>Figurative Use of “Cistern”<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The word “cistern” is also used figuratively in the Bible. Through the prophet Jeremiah, God rebuked Israel for rejecting him, the “fountain of living waters.” Instead, they had “dug for themselves cracked cisterns that can hold no water at all” (Jer 2:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 12:6 refers to a broken wheel at a cistern as a figurative description of old age.<\/p><\/blockquote>","content_en":"<h3>Figurative Use of “Cistern”<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The word “cistern” is also used figuratively in the Bible. Through the prophet Jeremiah, God rebuked Israel for rejecting him, the “fountain of living waters.” Instead, they had “dug for themselves cracked cisterns that can hold no water at all” (Jer 2:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 12:6 refers to a broken wheel at a cistern as a figurative description of old age.<\/p><\/blockquote>","summary_ro":"Figurative Use of “Cistern” The word “cistern” is also used figuratively in the Bible. Through the prophet Jeremiah, God rebuked Israel for rejecting him, the “fountain of living waters.” Instead, they had “dug for themselves cracked cisterns that can hold no water at all” (Jer 2:13, nlt). Ecclesiastes 12:6 refers to a broken wheel at a cistern as a figurative description of old age.","summary_en":"Figurative Use of “Cistern” The word “cistern” is also used figuratively in the Bible. Through the prophet Jeremiah, God rebuked Israel for rejecting him, the “fountain of living waters.” Instead, they had “dug for themselves cracked cisterns that can hold no water at all” (Jer 2:13, nlt). Ecclesiastes 12:6 refers to a broken wheel at a cistern as a figurative description of old age.","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50913,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:6","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","summary_en":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78539,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:6","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","summary_en":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106165,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:6","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","summary_en":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133791,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:6","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:6<\/strong> The <em>silver cord<\/em> and the <em>golden bowl<\/em><em>,<\/em> like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen <em>jar<\/em> that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","summary_en":"12:6 The silver cord and the golden bowl, like human life, are very valuable. • The body is like a common earthen jar that is fragile and soon broken (cp. Isa 29:16; Jer 19:1, 10-11; 22:28; 2 Cor 4:7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":537,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Adam (Person)","title_en":"Adam (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ADAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the first humans were created male and female in God’s image with his specific mandate to populate and rule over the earth. With regard to the rest of creation the first humans were, on one hand, part of it, being created on the same day as other land animals; on the other hand, they were distinctly above it, being the culmination of the creation process and sole bearers of God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>The intent of the second account is much more specific (2:4–3:24); it seeks to explain the origin of the present human condition of sin and death and to set the stage for the drama of redemption. The story treats in detail aspects of Adam’s creation omitted from the first story. For example, it tells of the formation of Adam from the dust of the ground and of his receiving the breath of life from God (2:7). It recounts the planting of the Garden and the responsibility given to Adam to cultivate it (2:8-15). God’s instruction to Adam that the fruit of every tree in the Garden was his for food, except one, is carefully recorded, as well as the solemn warning that the fruit of the “tree of the knowledge of good and evil” was never to be eaten, under the pain of death (2:16-17). Adam’s loneliness after naming the animals and not finding a suitable companion is also described, thus introducing the creation of the first woman (2:18-22). The creation of Eve from Adam’s rib poignantly portrays the essential unity of spirit and purpose of the sexes intended by God.<\/p>\n<p>The story does not end on such a positive note, however. It moves on to record the great deception Satan played upon Eve through the serpent. By clever insinuations and distortion of God’s original commandment (cf. 3:1 with 2:16-17), the serpent tricked Eve into eating the forbidden fruit and sharing it with Adam. Eve seems to have eaten because she was deceived (1 Tm 2:14), Adam out of a willful and conscious rebellion. Ironically, the two beings originally created in God’s image and likeness believed that they could become “like” God by disobeying him (Gn 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The effects of their disobedience were immediate, though not at all what Adam had expected. For the first time a barrier of shame disrupted the unity of man and woman (3:7). More important, a barrier of real moral guilt was erected between the first couple and God. The story relates that when God came looking for Adam after his rebellion, he was hiding among the trees, already aware of his separation from God (3:8). When God questioned him, Adam threw the blame on Eve and, by implication, back on God: “It was the woman you gave me who brought me the fruit” (3:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eve in turn blamed the serpent (3:13).<\/p>\n<p>According to the story in Genesis, God held all three responsible and informed each one of the calamitous consequences of their rebellion (3:14-19). The two great mandates, originally signs of pure blessing, became mixed with curse and pain—the earth could now be populated only through the woman’s birth pangs and could be subdued only by the man’s labor and perspiration (3:16-18). Further, the unity of man and woman would be strained by man’s subjugation of her, or possibly by the beginning of a struggle for dominance between them (3:16b can be taken both ways). Finally, God pronounced the ultimate consequence: as he had originally warned, Adam and Eve were to die. Someday the breath of life would be taken from them, and their bodies would return to the dust from which they were made (3:19). That very day they also experienced a “spiritual” death; they were separated from God, the giver of life, and from the tree of life, the symbol of eternal life (3:22). God sent them out of Eden, and there was no way back. The entrance to paradise was blocked by the cherubim and flaming sword (3:23-24). Only God could restore what they had lost.<\/p>\n<p>The story is not devoid of hope. God was merciful even then. He made them garments of skin to cover their bodies and promised that someday the power of Satan behind the serpent would be crushed by the woman’s “seed” (Gn 3:15; cf. Rom 16:20). Many scholars consider that promise to be the first biblical mention of redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSignificanceofAdam\">The Significance of Adam<\/p>\n<p>Adam’s significance is based upon several assumptions, the first being that he was a historical individual. That assumption was made by many OT writers (Gn 4:25; 5:1-5; 1 Chr 1:1; Hos 6:7). The NT writers agreed (Lk 3:38; Rom 5:14; 1 Cor 15:22, 45; 1 Tm 2:13-14; Jude 1:14). Equally essential to Adam’s significance is a second assumption, that he was more than an individual. To begin with, the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> (more correctly <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’a–dha–m<\/span>) is not merely a proper name. Even in the Genesis story it is not used as a name until Genesis 4:25. The word is one of several Hebrew words meaning “man” and is the generic term for “human race.” In the vast majority of cases it refers either to a male individual (Lv 1:2; Jos 14:15; Neh 9:29; Is 56:2) or to humanity in general (Ex 4:11; Nm 12:3; 16:29; Dt 4:28; 1 Kgs 4:31; Jb 7:20; 14:1). The generic, collective sense of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> is also behind the phrase “children (or sons) of men” (2 Sm 7:14; Pss 11:4; 12:1; 14:2; 53:2; 90:3; Eccl 1:13; 2:3). That phrase, literally “sons of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span><em>,”<\/em> simply means “men” or “human beings,” and when it is used the entire human race is in view. Indeed, the universalistic human connotation of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> indicates a concern in the OT going far beyond Israel’s nationalistic hopes and its God—to all the earth’s people and the Lord of all nations (Gn 9:5-7; Dt 5:24; 8:3; 1 Kgs 8:38-39; Pss 8:4; 89:48; 107:8-31; Prv 12:14; Mi 6:8).<\/p>\n<p>It is no accident, then, that the first man was named “Adam” or “Man.” The name intimates that to speak about Adam is somehow also to speak about the entire human race. Such usage can perhaps best be understood through the ancient concept of corporate personality and representation familiar to the Hebrews and other Near Eastern peoples. Modern thinking emphasizes the individual; existence of the social group and all social relationships has been seen as secondary to, and dependent upon, the existence and desire of the individual. The Hebrew understanding was quite different. Though the separate personality of the individual was appreciated (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18:4), there was a strong tendency to see the social group (family, tribe, nation) as a single organism with a corporate identity of its own. Likewise the group representative was seen as the embodiment or personification of the corporate personality of the group. Within the representative the essential qualities and characteristics of the social group resided in such a way that the actions and decisions of the representative were binding on the entire group. If the group was a family, the father was usually considered the corporate representative; for good or for ill his family, and sometimes his descendants, received the results of his actions (Gn 17:1-8; cf. Gn 20:1-9, 18; Ex 20:5-6; Jos 7:24-25; Rom 11:28; Heb 7:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>As the original man and father of humankind, in whose image all succeeding generations would be born (Gn 5:3), Adam was the corporate representative of humanity. The creation accounts themselves give the impression that the mandates of Genesis 1:26-30 (cf. Gn 9:1, 7; Pss 8:5-7; 104:14) as well as the curses of Genesis 3:16-19 (cf. Ps 90:3; Eccl 12:7; Is 13:8; 21:3) were meant not only for Adam (and Eve) but, through him, for the entire race.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 5:12-21 the apostle Paul contrasted the death and condemnation brought upon humanity by Adam’s disobedience with the life and justification given to humanity through Christ’s obedience. More explicitly, in 1 Corinthians 15:45-50 (<span>rsv<\/span>), Paul called Christ the “last Adam,” “second man,” and the “man of heaven” in juxtaposition to the “first Adam,” the “first man,” and the “man of dust.”<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the human race was divided into two groups in the persons of Adam and Christ. Those who remain “incorporated” in Adam are the “old” humanity, bearing the image of the “man of dust” and partaking of his sin and alienation from God and Creation (Rom 5:12-19; 8:20-22). But those who are incorporated into Christ by faith become Christ’s “body” (Rom 12:4-5; 1 Cor 12:12-13, 27; Eph 1:22-23; Col 1:18); they are recreated in Christ’s image (Rom 8:29; 1 Cor 15:49; 2 Cor 3:18); they become one “new man” (Eph 2:15; 4:24; Col 3:9-10, <span>kjv<\/span>); and they partake of the new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). The old barriers raised by Adam are removed by Christ (Rom 5:1; 2 Cor 5:19; Gal 3:27-28; Eph 2:14-16). For Paul, the functional similarity of Adam and Christ as representatives meant that Christ had restored what Adam had lost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eve; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ADAM (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the first humans were created male and female in God’s image with his specific mandate to populate and rule over the earth. With regard to the rest of creation the first humans were, on one hand, part of it, being created on the same day as other land animals; on the other hand, they were distinctly above it, being the culmination of the creation process and sole bearers of God’s image.<\/p>\n<p>The intent of the second account is much more specific (2:4–3:24); it seeks to explain the origin of the present human condition of sin and death and to set the stage for the drama of redemption. The story treats in detail aspects of Adam’s creation omitted from the first story. For example, it tells of the formation of Adam from the dust of the ground and of his receiving the breath of life from God (2:7). It recounts the planting of the Garden and the responsibility given to Adam to cultivate it (2:8-15). God’s instruction to Adam that the fruit of every tree in the Garden was his for food, except one, is carefully recorded, as well as the solemn warning that the fruit of the “tree of the knowledge of good and evil” was never to be eaten, under the pain of death (2:16-17). Adam’s loneliness after naming the animals and not finding a suitable companion is also described, thus introducing the creation of the first woman (2:18-22). The creation of Eve from Adam’s rib poignantly portrays the essential unity of spirit and purpose of the sexes intended by God.<\/p>\n<p>The story does not end on such a positive note, however. It moves on to record the great deception Satan played upon Eve through the serpent. By clever insinuations and distortion of God’s original commandment (cf. 3:1 with 2:16-17), the serpent tricked Eve into eating the forbidden fruit and sharing it with Adam. Eve seems to have eaten because she was deceived (1 Tm 2:14), Adam out of a willful and conscious rebellion. Ironically, the two beings originally created in God’s image and likeness believed that they could become “like” God by disobeying him (Gn 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The effects of their disobedience were immediate, though not at all what Adam had expected. For the first time a barrier of shame disrupted the unity of man and woman (3:7). More important, a barrier of real moral guilt was erected between the first couple and God. The story relates that when God came looking for Adam after his rebellion, he was hiding among the trees, already aware of his separation from God (3:8). When God questioned him, Adam threw the blame on Eve and, by implication, back on God: “It was the woman you gave me who brought me the fruit” (3:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). Eve in turn blamed the serpent (3:13).<\/p>\n<p>According to the story in Genesis, God held all three responsible and informed each one of the calamitous consequences of their rebellion (3:14-19). The two great mandates, originally signs of pure blessing, became mixed with curse and pain—the earth could now be populated only through the woman’s birth pangs and could be subdued only by the man’s labor and perspiration (3:16-18). Further, the unity of man and woman would be strained by man’s subjugation of her, or possibly by the beginning of a struggle for dominance between them (3:16b can be taken both ways). Finally, God pronounced the ultimate consequence: as he had originally warned, Adam and Eve were to die. Someday the breath of life would be taken from them, and their bodies would return to the dust from which they were made (3:19). That very day they also experienced a “spiritual” death; they were separated from God, the giver of life, and from the tree of life, the symbol of eternal life (3:22). God sent them out of Eden, and there was no way back. The entrance to paradise was blocked by the cherubim and flaming sword (3:23-24). Only God could restore what they had lost.<\/p>\n<p>The story is not devoid of hope. God was merciful even then. He made them garments of skin to cover their bodies and promised that someday the power of Satan behind the serpent would be crushed by the woman’s “seed” (Gn 3:15; cf. Rom 16:20). Many scholars consider that promise to be the first biblical mention of redemption.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSignificanceofAdam\">The Significance of Adam<\/p>\n<p>Adam’s significance is based upon several assumptions, the first being that he was a historical individual. That assumption was made by many OT writers (Gn 4:25; 5:1-5; 1 Chr 1:1; Hos 6:7). The NT writers agreed (Lk 3:38; Rom 5:14; 1 Cor 15:22, 45; 1 Tm 2:13-14; Jude 1:14). Equally essential to Adam’s significance is a second assumption, that he was more than an individual. To begin with, the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> (more correctly <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’a–dha–m<\/span>) is not merely a proper name. Even in the Genesis story it is not used as a name until Genesis 4:25. The word is one of several Hebrew words meaning “man” and is the generic term for “human race.” In the vast majority of cases it refers either to a male individual (Lv 1:2; Jos 14:15; Neh 9:29; Is 56:2) or to humanity in general (Ex 4:11; Nm 12:3; 16:29; Dt 4:28; 1 Kgs 4:31; Jb 7:20; 14:1). The generic, collective sense of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> is also behind the phrase “children (or sons) of men” (2 Sm 7:14; Pss 11:4; 12:1; 14:2; 53:2; 90:3; Eccl 1:13; 2:3). That phrase, literally “sons of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span><em>,”<\/em> simply means “men” or “human beings,” and when it is used the entire human race is in view. Indeed, the universalistic human connotation of the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">adam<\/span> indicates a concern in the OT going far beyond Israel’s nationalistic hopes and its God—to all the earth’s people and the Lord of all nations (Gn 9:5-7; Dt 5:24; 8:3; 1 Kgs 8:38-39; Pss 8:4; 89:48; 107:8-31; Prv 12:14; Mi 6:8).<\/p>\n<p>It is no accident, then, that the first man was named “Adam” or “Man.” The name intimates that to speak about Adam is somehow also to speak about the entire human race. Such usage can perhaps best be understood through the ancient concept of corporate personality and representation familiar to the Hebrews and other Near Eastern peoples. Modern thinking emphasizes the individual; existence of the social group and all social relationships has been seen as secondary to, and dependent upon, the existence and desire of the individual. The Hebrew understanding was quite different. Though the separate personality of the individual was appreciated (Jer 31:29-30; Ez 18:4), there was a strong tendency to see the social group (family, tribe, nation) as a single organism with a corporate identity of its own. Likewise the group representative was seen as the embodiment or personification of the corporate personality of the group. Within the representative the essential qualities and characteristics of the social group resided in such a way that the actions and decisions of the representative were binding on the entire group. If the group was a family, the father was usually considered the corporate representative; for good or for ill his family, and sometimes his descendants, received the results of his actions (Gn 17:1-8; cf. Gn 20:1-9, 18; Ex 20:5-6; Jos 7:24-25; Rom 11:28; Heb 7:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>As the original man and father of humankind, in whose image all succeeding generations would be born (Gn 5:3), Adam was the corporate representative of humanity. The creation accounts themselves give the impression that the mandates of Genesis 1:26-30 (cf. Gn 9:1, 7; Pss 8:5-7; 104:14) as well as the curses of Genesis 3:16-19 (cf. Ps 90:3; Eccl 12:7; Is 13:8; 21:3) were meant not only for Adam (and Eve) but, through him, for the entire race.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 5:12-21 the apostle Paul contrasted the death and condemnation brought upon humanity by Adam’s disobedience with the life and justification given to humanity through Christ’s obedience. More explicitly, in 1 Corinthians 15:45-50 (<span>rsv<\/span>), Paul called Christ the “last Adam,” “second man,” and the “man of heaven” in juxtaposition to the “first Adam,” the “first man,” and the “man of dust.”<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, the human race was divided into two groups in the persons of Adam and Christ. Those who remain “incorporated” in Adam are the “old” humanity, bearing the image of the “man of dust” and partaking of his sin and alienation from God and Creation (Rom 5:12-19; 8:20-22). But those who are incorporated into Christ by faith become Christ’s “body” (Rom 12:4-5; 1 Cor 12:12-13, 27; Eph 1:22-23; Col 1:18); they are recreated in Christ’s image (Rom 8:29; 1 Cor 15:49; 2 Cor 3:18); they become one “new man” (Eph 2:15; 4:24; Col 3:9-10, <span>kjv<\/span>); and they partake of the new creation (2 Cor 5:17; Gal 6:15). The old barriers raised by Adam are removed by Christ (Rom 5:1; 2 Cor 5:19; Gal 3:27-28; Eph 2:14-16). For Paul, the functional similarity of Adam and Christ as representatives meant that Christ had restored what Adam had lost.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eve; Man, Old and New; New Creation, New Creature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ADAM (Person) First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ. The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the f...","summary_en":"ADAM (Person) First man and father of the human race. Adam’s role in biblical history is important not only in OT considerations but also in understanding the meaning of salvation and the person and work of Jesus Christ. The creation of Adam and the first woman, Eve, is recited in two accounts in the book of Genesis. The intent of the first account (1:26-31) is to present the first pair in their relationship to God and to the rest of the created order. It teaches that with regard to God the f...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50914,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:7","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","summary_en":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78540,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:7","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","summary_en":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106166,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:7","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","summary_en":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133792,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:7","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:7<\/strong> <em>the dust will return to the earth:<\/em> See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That <em>the spirit will return to God who gave it<\/em> hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","summary_en":"12:7 the dust will return to the earth: See Gen 2:7; 3:19. • That the spirit will return to God who gave it hints at belief in an afterlife (cp. Eccl 3:21; see “The Afterlife” Theme Note).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":10026,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ecclesiastes","title_en":"Book of Ecclesiastes","content_ro":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","summary_en":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50915,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:8","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","summary_en":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78541,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:8","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","summary_en":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106167,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:8","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","summary_en":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133793,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:8","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:8<\/strong> This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","summary_en":"12:8 This nearly verbatim repetition of 1:2 sums up the Teacher’s conclusion.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":50916,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","summary_en":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50917,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","summary_en":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78542,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","summary_en":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78543,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","summary_en":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106168,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","summary_en":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106169,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","summary_en":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133794,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9-14<\/strong> This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","summary_en":"12:9-14 This coda by the editor (see “Author and Recipients” in the Book Introduction) expresses the editor’s respect for the Teacher, exhorts readers to apply his teaching, and gives the editor’s own conclusion from studying the Teacher (12:13-14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133795,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:9","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:9<\/strong> Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","summary_en":"12:9 Even as king (1:1), the Teacher found time to study wisdom. He collected and arranged proverbs (see also 1 Kgs 4:29-34; Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61514,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom","title_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom","content_ro":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","summary_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89140,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom","title_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom","content_ro":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","summary_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116766,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom","title_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom","content_ro":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","summary_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144392,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom","title_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom","content_ro":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Solomon’s Wisdom<\/h3>\n<p>When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people were “in awe of the king” (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Later, the queen of Sheba came to test him with difficult questions and found his wisdom exceeding all that she had heard about it (10:1-9). His administration (4:1-28), his diplomacy (5:1-9), his building projects (5:10–7:51), and his commerce (9:26-28; 10:14-29) all demonstrated his wisdom. Solomon accumulated vast knowledge (4:29-33) and wrote proverbs (much of the book of Proverbs), songs (Pss 72; 127), love poetry (the Song of Songs), and philosophical literature (Ecclesiastes). He used his wisdom to build the Temple (2 Chr 2:12), even as Bezalel had previously been endowed with wisdom to build the Tabernacle (Exod 31:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus noted Solomon’s great wisdom and reminded his hearers that someone even greater than Solomon was among them (Matt 12:42). Jesus is the true wisdom of God in whom one can find ultimate wisdom (1 Cor 1:24). A life of wisdom is centered in Christ (1 Cor 1:18-25; Col 3:16; 2 Pet 3:18) and in Scripture (2 Tim 3:14-17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:1-6; 1 Kgs 3:5-14; 3:16-28; 4:29-34; 5:2-7; 10:1-13; 2 Chr 1:7-12; Pss 72:1-20; 111:10; 127:1-5; Eccl 12:9-14; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 9:23-24; Matt 12:42; Jas 1:5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","summary_en":"Solomon’s Wisdom When God gave Solomon the opportunity to ask for anything he wanted, Solomon chose wisdom, so that he could “govern [God’s] people well and know the difference between right and wrong” (1 Kgs 3:9). In response to this unselfish choice, God granted the wisdom he desired (3:12) and the rewards of its proper use (3:13-14; 2 Chr 1:14-17). Solomon’s subsequent behavior provided immediate evidence of his wisdom. He resolved an argument over a child with such insight that the people...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":50918,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:11","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","summary_en":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78544,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:11","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","summary_en":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106170,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:11","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","summary_en":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133796,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:11","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:11<\/strong> <em>cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick:<\/em> Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • <em>a shepherd:<\/em> This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing <em>the words of the wise<\/em> to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","summary_en":"12:11 cattle prods . . . nail-studded stick: Painful lessons are sometimes required to direct us into paths that we would rather not take. • a shepherd: This word is possibly an allusion to God as the shepherd of his people (Ps 23:1; Isa 40:11). The sentence might also just be comparing the words of the wise to the work that any shepherd does in taking care of his flock.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":50919,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:12","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","summary_en":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78545,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:12","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","summary_en":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106171,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:12","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","summary_en":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133797,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:12","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:12<\/strong> A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","summary_en":"12:12 A moderate approach to writing and studying wisdom leaves enough time to apply it and enjoy its fruits.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":10069,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Ecclesiastes","title_en":"Book of Ecclesiastes","content_ro":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ECCLESIASTES, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence.<\/p>\n<p>“Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Koheleth.”<\/p>\n<p>The term “Koheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Eccl 1:1-2, 12; 7:27; 12:8-10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the Preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The authorship of Ecclesiastes presents complex questions, on which biblical scholars disagree. Early Jewish tradition was divided over the issue, ascribing the book to King Hezekiah and his school, as well as to King Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>Internal evidence is often appealed to for support of Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes. The first verse ascribes the authorship of the book to “the son of David.” Other passages (e.g., 1:16-17; 2:6-7) also seem to refer to Solomon, who succeeded David as king of the united kingdom of Israel. Those who reject Solomonic authorship interpret such references as literary devices, written by a later unknown author in order to use Solomon’s devotion to wisdom as a context for his own ideas about life’s purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A number of passages in the book have been appealed to in support of non-Solomonic authorship. Some scholars allege that if the book had been written by Solomon, he would not have used the past tense about his reign “over Israel in Jerusalem” (1:12). Proponents of Solomonic authorship point out, however, that the Hebrew verb “was” can also mean “became,” thus stating that Solomon had become king in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that 1:16 supports a date of writing by an author who lived much later than Solomon. They say that Solomon could not have said that he was wiser than “all who were over Jerusalem before me,” for that would point to a long succession of kings before him. But the author may have meant prominent wise men rather than kings (see 1 Kgs 4:31).<\/p>\n<p>One of the chief difficulties with Solomonic authorship is the fact that OT history does not record a period of spiritual revival in Solomon’s life as a context for the book of Ecclesiastes. That is not a conclusive argument, however, for the thoughts recorded in the book are intensely personal in nature. The historical books of the OT deal primarily with historical developments, mentioning personal aspects of human life only where they bear upon God’s purposes as reflected in the national history. It would, in fact, be surprising if the extremely personal struggles recorded in Ecclesiastes were cited by the historical writers.<\/p>\n<p>The question of authorship is a difficult one, but there seems to be no conclusive evidence against Solomon as the author of Ecclesiastes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>The majority of scholars who hold to the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes date the book in Solomon’s final years as king (c. 940 <span>BC<\/span>). The book would then have been written in the golden era of Israelite wisdom, by one of the foremost proponents of wisdom teaching.<\/p>\n<p>Those who deny Solomonic authorship disagree among themselves as to when the book was written, but most date it in the postexilic period. A Maccabean date (c. 165 <span>BC<\/span>) is difficult to maintain, because fragments of the book, dated in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, have been found at the Dead Sea site of Qumran. Also, the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, probably written in the early second century <span>BC<\/span>, was heavily influenced by Ecclesiastes. Such factors would allow little time for the writing and circulation of the book in the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p>A number of conservative scholars, such as Franz Delitzsch and E. J. Young, have assigned a fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> date to the book. Many others consider it a third-century <span>BC<\/span> document.<\/p>\n<h5>Internal Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Attempts have been made to determine the date of the book of Ecclesiastes from alleged historical allusions. But the somewhat gloomy observations found in such passages as 1:2-11 and 3:1-15 need be nothing more than the author’s conclusions about the emptiness of life. They do not necessarily indicate that the book was written in a time of national decline or social decay within Israel, a time that would not fit with the reign of Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>It is also alleged that the book contains allusions to Greek philosophical concepts. That would indicate that it was written sometime after the Hellenization of the Syro-Palestinian world effected by the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>One of those philosophical concepts is the “golden mean” propounded by Aristotle. The golden mean calls for avoiding extremes in the pursuit of satisfaction in life, and it is reflected in Ecclesiastes 7:14-18. The same concept is found in Egyptian wisdom literature (<em>Instruction of Amen-em-opet<\/em> 9.14), as well as in Aramaic wisdom literature. In one of the finest examples of Aramaic wisdom, <em>The Words of Ahiqar,<\/em> the golden mean is expressed in the words “Be not (too) sweet, lest they [swallow you]; be not (too) bitter [<em>lest they spit you out<\/em>].” But the golden mean concept need not indicate one particular period of thought; it may simply represent a basic kind of wisdom shared by people of all times and all ethnic backgrounds.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Considerations<\/h5>\n<p>The most critical issue in dating Ecclesiastes is the nature of the book’s language. The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes is unique, differing stylistically and linguistically from such fifth-century OT books as Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zechariah.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars maintain that the language of Ecclesiastes was heavily influenced by Aramaic, and thus the book was written at a time when the Aramaic language was influential in the Hebrew-speaking world. Others have argued that the peculiarities of the Hebrew should be understood as affinities with Canaanite-Phoenician dialects.<\/p>\n<p>It is often asserted that the Hebrew of the book is similar to later Mishnaic Hebrew, particularly in its use of the relative pronoun. Yet the language of Ecclesiastes is dissimilar to the Mishnah in other ways.<\/p>\n<p>The linguistic evidence could point to a late date for the book, but it is also possible that Solomon wrote in a literary style that was heavily influenced by Phoenician literature. Such a style may have become a standard for the literary genre into which Ecclesiastes falls. During the reign of Solomon, contacts between Palestine and Phoenicia were quite common.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes demonstrates the meaninglessness of a worldview that does not press beyond the limits of human experience to include God. It seeks to show that meaningful satisfaction may be attained in a universe that seems to be nothing more than a succession of wearying cycles—a universe into which people are locked with no apparent means of escape. According to Koheleth, freedom can be achieved by fearing God and believing that God will ultimately judge everything fairly. Thus, life has a goal and purpose that it will reach, although in the course of history and the processes of the physical world, it may not look that way.<\/p>\n<p>The book’s chief theological tenet is that God is not disinterested in the course of human events with its gross injustices. He will judge every deed. Life, therefore, has a purpose, and human deeds have meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth is often accused of having a pessimistic view of life. One cannot read such passages as 1:12-14, 18 and 2:1-9, 18-23 without feeling his helplessness as he viewed what seemed an empty existence. But Koheleth’s pessimism had to do with life apart from God. To him such a life had no meaning.<\/p>\n<p>A positive good emerges from the book, however, even though it is often overlooked. Koheleth speaks in terms of absolutes as he spins his argument. There is an absolute good for people as they live in a seemingly meaningless world. That good is the enjoyment of God’s gifts to his people. Thus Koheleth is not an utter pessimist. When he lifts the horizons of his worldview to include the hand of God at work in the world, he becomes an optimist. But when he looks at life without God, he is pessimistic, for such a view offers only despair.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth’s “theology of contentment” is clear in such passages as 2:24-25, 3:10-13, and 3:22. The first passage seems to express a hedonistic view of life, making eating and drinking the main purpose. The expression “eat and drink” is a Semitic idiom that seems to express the everyday routines of life (cf. Jer 22:15; Lk 17:27-28). Koheleth’s use of the phrase, then, simply means that one should enjoy God’s providence. Life is meant to be enjoyed, not endured.<\/p>\n<p>In 3:10-13 Koheleth sets forth the great enigma of humankind: God has put the knowledge of eternity in the human mind. That is, he has made the mind able to go beyond the limits of physical existence. Yet even that ability to conceptualize the eternal does not explain all of God’s purposes. Therefore, it is good for a person simply to accept human limitation and enjoy whatever knowledge God gives.<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes 3:16–4:3 is a difficult section of the book. There Koheleth observes the inequities of life and concludes that God allows such things for the purpose of “sifting” people to show them that they are no more than animals. The same principle appears in 8:11, where Koheleth observes that when evil goes unpunished, the wicked are encouraged to continue to do evil. In 3:18 he asserts that injustice is present in the world to distinguish the good from the wicked. The Hebrew in that assertion should be translated “in and of themselves.” That is, viewed alone, apart from God, humankind is no better than animals. If one adopts a worldview that omits God, there can be no way of knowing what lies beyond the grave (3:21). The inequities that Koheleth observes will be corrected only in the Day of Judgment. Thus, it is best for a person to be content with God’s providence and not to be anxious about tomorrow (3:22).<\/p>\n<p>The key to understanding the book of Ecclesiastes is the recurring phrase “under the sun.” That phrase defines Koheleth’s perspective. He is not judging all human experience as vain. Rather, he is observing life “under the sun,” or apart from God, as vain. The apostle Paul rendered the same verdict on the created world in Romans 8:20-23, but he went on to say that God uses all things in his world to work out good results for his people (Rom 8:28). Koheleth’s viewpoint is similarly helpful.<\/p>\n<p>Koheleth has often been interpreted as expressing an Epicurean view of life, that eating and drinking are humanity’s highest good. In 2:1-8, however, he tests pleasure and finds it futile. He concludes that pleasure is not an absolute good. The passages that speak of eating and drinking refer only to the enjoyment of those good and necessary things that come from God’s hand.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of the Cycle of History and Nature (1:1-11)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth begins his recital of the vanity of life by observing its emptiness and the apparent lack of purpose in the processes of nature. Human toil is fruitless (1:3), and the endless cycle of life and history is meaningless (1:4-11).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Koheleth’s Own Experience (1:12–2:26)<\/h5>\n<p>In this dramatic section Koheleth looks back to observe the futility of aspects of his life that some might have regarded as possessing great value. He recalls his search for wisdom, but pronounces human philosophy futile (1:12-18). His search for pleasure (2:1-11) also ended in futility. In the light of this conclusion, Koheleth hardly sets forth the attainment of pleasure as life’s highest good. The search for valid philosophical verities is wearisome and futile in its outcome (vv 12-17). Human toil is also vain (vv 18-23), because one can never be sure who will inherit the reward of one’s toil (v 21). Koheleth concludes that the greatest good is to accept God’s providence joyfully (vv 24-26), an optimistic note in his message.<\/p>\n<h5>The Plight of Humanity apart from God (3:1-22)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth’s familiar statement that everything in life has its time (3:1-9) has often been interpreted as crassly fatalistic. But those verses more probably set forth the unalterability of life’s circumstances. Humankind is locked into a continuum from which there is no escape, yet people are able to think in terms that go beyond the physical (v 11). That is the enigma of humankind. Viewed apart from God, people really are no better than animals (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Conclusions Resulting from Koheleth’s Observations (4:1-16)<\/h5>\n<p>The author begins with a gloomy outlook on life (4:1-3) but goes on to draw conclusions of permanent value. He points out, for example, that life’s difficulties are better faced with a partner than alone (vv 9-12).<\/p>\n<h5>The Vanity of Living Only for Oneself (5:1–6:12)<\/h5>\n<p>Koheleth gives a powerful denunciation of a self-seeking life by focusing on God (5:1-2, 4-6). His condemnation of the misuse of riches and his concern for the poor (5:8–6:9) are themes later emphasized in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom for Living (7:1–8:17)<\/h5>\n<p>This fine example of OT Wisdom Literature uses a proverbial pattern (7:1-13) and personal references (vv 23-29) to give insight into how one may find true satisfaction. The whole passage upholds the virtue of godly wisdom. Koheleth’s theology of contentment underlies his observation that God is the source of adversity as well as prosperity (v 14). He affirms that one should accept both as coming from God. Applying wisdom to governmental authority (8:2-9), Koheleth counsels the reader to obey the authorities. The apostle Paul gave the same advice in Romans 13. Koheleth strikes an optimistic note (Eccl 8:13), exalting the fear of God. The author is not totally pessimistic, for he shows that fearing God leads to genuine satisfaction.<\/p>\n<h5>Observations on Life’s Seeming Injustices (9:1-18)<\/h5>\n<p>“Under the sun,” that is, apart from God, there are no apparent differences among human beings (9:1-6, 11-12). Great deeds often go unnoticed and unthanked (vv 13-16). A person should nonetheless be content, for life does offer certain benefits (vv 7-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom and Folly (10:1-20)<\/h5>\n<p>Wisdom in the OT basically means knowing God, and folly is rejection of God. Koheleth shows how wisdom can lead to honor and satisfaction, and folly can lead to ruin.<\/p>\n<h5>Koheleth’s Conclusion—Fear God (11:1–12:14)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Ecclesiastes began with a pronouncement of vanity on all creation, and it ends with Koheleth looking beyond his gloomy vistas to see God. Chapter 11 begins with a statement of human inability to understand the ways of God. Though people are meant to enjoy life, they must remember that the future will bring God’s judgment (11:9-10). After giving a beautiful description of old age (12:1-8) and encouraging the reader to fear God in youth, Koheleth states his conclusion. A person’s whole duty is to fear God (vv 13-14). The pleasure of youth will burst like a bubble and, without God, one will finally have nothing. Satisfaction can come only as one fears God. Life without God is the ultimate vanity.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Solomon (Person); Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","summary_en":"ECCLESIASTES, Book of OT book of Wisdom Literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Koheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Literature*, Wisdom","title_en":"Literature*, Wisdom","content_ro":"<h3>WISDOM LITERATURE*<\/h3>\n<p>Literature in the OT that has wisdom as its central theme. It comprises principally the books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes and may also be found in portions of the Psalms and Prophets. The Wisdom Literature contains both the moral substance of true wisdom (as in Proverbs) and also the intellectual explorations of wise men seeking to understand the fundamental problems of human existence (as in Job, Ecclesiastes).<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom Literature forms an important part of the OT. It falls within the third division of the Hebrew canon, called the Writings, and comprises basically three books: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes (or Koheleth), and Job. There are also wisdom psalms (e.g., Pss 1, 32, 34, 37) and wisdom-type passages in the Prophets (such as the parables of Isaiah). In the Greek OT (and the English Apocrypha), two additional books of wisdom are found. There is Ecclesiasticus, a second-century <span>BC<\/span> work of Jesus ben Sirach, which has certain similarities to the book of Proverbs, and the Wisdom of Solomon, an anonymous work representing the flowering of Jewish wisdom in the Hellenistic period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Proverbs\">Proverbs<\/p>\n<p>The starting point for an understanding of OT Wisdom Literature is Proverbs. Its wisdom concerns morality—the knowledge of how to live properly. It has a theological foundation, though much of its wisdom is secular in form. The starting point, as for all wisdom, is the reverence of God. But for the most part, the concern of the book is to convey the fundamentals of morality, the virtues of integrity, discipline, justice, and common sense, and to show by way of contrast the failure in life that awaits the fool. The book has a strongly didactic nature. Nowadays it can be read as a piece of literature, though its wisdom was designed to be learned, memorized even, by the young persons who received their education at the feet of the wise men. For those who learned its truth, for whom the short poetic sayings became a part of the subconscious mind, the wisdom of the proverbs served as a moral and spiritual guide throughout life. There was a way to live successfully, a way governed by morality, and success lay in the fact that the morally good life was the life lived according to the wisdom of the Creator of all life. Thus, the wise men of the proverbs functioned as guides, in both their teaching and their writing; they provided no new philosophical theories, no advanced intellectual speculation, but communicated that most valuable of all human kinds of knowledge: wisdom on how to live. Wisdom is “more precious than jewels, and nothing you desire can compare with her. Long life is in her right hand; in her left hand are riches and honor. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace” (Prv 3:15-17, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ecclesiastes\">Ecclesiastes<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes reflects the wisdom of a man who had lived long and seen the world from all perspectives. His faith was not the superficial faith of a man who lived easily and believed lightly. The man had seen that the righteous do not always prosper and the wicked suffer. Too often the righteous suffer, with no relief from their suffering, and the wicked enjoy their lives in carefree abandon. The writer of Ecclesiastes sought justice, but as he observed the world through honest and objective eyes, he could not see that justice was always done. More than justice, he sought truth, but even truth in its ultimate perspectives eluded him. All was vanity, a grasping after wind! Yet for all the skeptical and apparently negative tenor of Ecclesiastes, it is a magnificent monument of faith, a faith that held on to God despite the agony and pointlessness of a world filled with evil and vanity. This wise man could not soar with hope like that of the prophets, but he could hold on to the fundamental truth of God when all else, including understanding, failed. So the book of Ecclesiastes may become an intimate companion to those who see the world as it really is, in all its agony and apparent vanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Job\">Job<\/p>\n<p>Whereas the writer of Ecclesiastes described the grief and sadness of the world from the perspective of an observer, Job grasped the problems from within, from the perspective of the sufferer. Job knew the ancient proverbial wisdom and had lived his life by that wisdom, but he had an experience that called into question conventional morality and wisdom. He was a pious man, an upright man, whose life embodied the precepts of Proverbs. Prior to his experience, he had no cause to doubt a simple interpretation of proverbial wisdom: righteousness led to prosperity and happiness. But then Job’s world collapsed, and with it the wisdom by which he had lived. The loss of possessions, property, and prestige; the death of his children; the pain and suffering of terrible illness—all these things conspired to raise an enormous question as to the validity of traditional morality. But the wisdom of the book of Job raises an even more fundamental question than the validity of morality; Job questioned the premise of all wisdom, God himself. In what sense can God be just in the face of such apparent injustice? In what sense can God be just, when unjust men flourish and prosper (Jb 21:7-15)? Does God’s creation really reflect structure, order, and goodness, if the experience of Job is the measure of human life? Such are the radical questions evoked by Job, and they receive no simple solution. Yet in the great climax of the book of Job, namely, the encounter between God and Job (chs 38–42), wisdom is set in its proper perspective. There remains always a mystery in God and in God’s ways that lies beyond the grasp of the human mind. Wisdom is pursuit of the knowledge of God, but wisdom as intellectual knowledge can never grasp ultimate truth in all its depth, for God is always greater than the human mind and human wisdom. Yet Job adds a further truth to the knowledge of conventional wisdom. While Job’s questions were not explicitly answered, they were effectively removed; it was the encounter of God with Job that transformed the man. Thus, the ultimate wisdom lies not in finding an answer to the ultimate questions but rather in the encounter with the living God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of the Wisdom Literature has manifold dimensions and in its totality is a compound of the various perspectives on the truth contained in Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. There is a fundamental knowledge and morality that is vital to proper and successful living and that must be communicated to the young as their basic rule of life. It will lead not always to material prosperity but to that more profound prosperity that transcends adversity—the prosperity of the person whose life is lived in reverence of God. With the passage of time and advancement of years, there comes to those educated in conventional wisdom the understanding that life and the world are not so simple. Faced with the temptation to jettison conventional morality and wisdom, a person may find that the more worldly wisdom of Ecclesiastes provides an anchor. Life may seem pointless, the world may seem to be essentially a place of vanity, but the truth of God and reverence for God must be maintained in the face of radical doubt (Eccl 12:13-14). To those who experience in some fashion the plight of Job, wisdom reaches its limits and points beyond itself; humans cannot always find an answer to the questions, and the last resort is simply the experience of the living God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WISDOM LITERATURE*<\/h3>\n<p>Literature in the OT that has wisdom as its central theme. It comprises principally the books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes and may also be found in portions of the Psalms and Prophets. The Wisdom Literature contains both the moral substance of true wisdom (as in Proverbs) and also the intellectual explorations of wise men seeking to understand the fundamental problems of human existence (as in Job, Ecclesiastes).<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom Literature forms an important part of the OT. It falls within the third division of the Hebrew canon, called the Writings, and comprises basically three books: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes (or Koheleth), and Job. There are also wisdom psalms (e.g., Pss 1, 32, 34, 37) and wisdom-type passages in the Prophets (such as the parables of Isaiah). In the Greek OT (and the English Apocrypha), two additional books of wisdom are found. There is Ecclesiasticus, a second-century <span>BC<\/span> work of Jesus ben Sirach, which has certain similarities to the book of Proverbs, and the Wisdom of Solomon, an anonymous work representing the flowering of Jewish wisdom in the Hellenistic period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Proverbs\">Proverbs<\/p>\n<p>The starting point for an understanding of OT Wisdom Literature is Proverbs. Its wisdom concerns morality—the knowledge of how to live properly. It has a theological foundation, though much of its wisdom is secular in form. The starting point, as for all wisdom, is the reverence of God. But for the most part, the concern of the book is to convey the fundamentals of morality, the virtues of integrity, discipline, justice, and common sense, and to show by way of contrast the failure in life that awaits the fool. The book has a strongly didactic nature. Nowadays it can be read as a piece of literature, though its wisdom was designed to be learned, memorized even, by the young persons who received their education at the feet of the wise men. For those who learned its truth, for whom the short poetic sayings became a part of the subconscious mind, the wisdom of the proverbs served as a moral and spiritual guide throughout life. There was a way to live successfully, a way governed by morality, and success lay in the fact that the morally good life was the life lived according to the wisdom of the Creator of all life. Thus, the wise men of the proverbs functioned as guides, in both their teaching and their writing; they provided no new philosophical theories, no advanced intellectual speculation, but communicated that most valuable of all human kinds of knowledge: wisdom on how to live. Wisdom is “more precious than jewels, and nothing you desire can compare with her. Long life is in her right hand; in her left hand are riches and honor. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace” (Prv 3:15-17, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ecclesiastes\">Ecclesiastes<\/p>\n<p>Ecclesiastes reflects the wisdom of a man who had lived long and seen the world from all perspectives. His faith was not the superficial faith of a man who lived easily and believed lightly. The man had seen that the righteous do not always prosper and the wicked suffer. Too often the righteous suffer, with no relief from their suffering, and the wicked enjoy their lives in carefree abandon. The writer of Ecclesiastes sought justice, but as he observed the world through honest and objective eyes, he could not see that justice was always done. More than justice, he sought truth, but even truth in its ultimate perspectives eluded him. All was vanity, a grasping after wind! Yet for all the skeptical and apparently negative tenor of Ecclesiastes, it is a magnificent monument of faith, a faith that held on to God despite the agony and pointlessness of a world filled with evil and vanity. This wise man could not soar with hope like that of the prophets, but he could hold on to the fundamental truth of God when all else, including understanding, failed. So the book of Ecclesiastes may become an intimate companion to those who see the world as it really is, in all its agony and apparent vanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Job\">Job<\/p>\n<p>Whereas the writer of Ecclesiastes described the grief and sadness of the world from the perspective of an observer, Job grasped the problems from within, from the perspective of the sufferer. Job knew the ancient proverbial wisdom and had lived his life by that wisdom, but he had an experience that called into question conventional morality and wisdom. He was a pious man, an upright man, whose life embodied the precepts of Proverbs. Prior to his experience, he had no cause to doubt a simple interpretation of proverbial wisdom: righteousness led to prosperity and happiness. But then Job’s world collapsed, and with it the wisdom by which he had lived. The loss of possessions, property, and prestige; the death of his children; the pain and suffering of terrible illness—all these things conspired to raise an enormous question as to the validity of traditional morality. But the wisdom of the book of Job raises an even more fundamental question than the validity of morality; Job questioned the premise of all wisdom, God himself. In what sense can God be just in the face of such apparent injustice? In what sense can God be just, when unjust men flourish and prosper (Jb 21:7-15)? Does God’s creation really reflect structure, order, and goodness, if the experience of Job is the measure of human life? Such are the radical questions evoked by Job, and they receive no simple solution. Yet in the great climax of the book of Job, namely, the encounter between God and Job (chs 38–42), wisdom is set in its proper perspective. There remains always a mystery in God and in God’s ways that lies beyond the grasp of the human mind. Wisdom is pursuit of the knowledge of God, but wisdom as intellectual knowledge can never grasp ultimate truth in all its depth, for God is always greater than the human mind and human wisdom. Yet Job adds a further truth to the knowledge of conventional wisdom. While Job’s questions were not explicitly answered, they were effectively removed; it was the encounter of God with Job that transformed the man. Thus, the ultimate wisdom lies not in finding an answer to the ultimate questions but rather in the encounter with the living God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of the Wisdom Literature has manifold dimensions and in its totality is a compound of the various perspectives on the truth contained in Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. There is a fundamental knowledge and morality that is vital to proper and successful living and that must be communicated to the young as their basic rule of life. It will lead not always to material prosperity but to that more profound prosperity that transcends adversity—the prosperity of the person whose life is lived in reverence of God. With the passage of time and advancement of years, there comes to those educated in conventional wisdom the understanding that life and the world are not so simple. Faced with the temptation to jettison conventional morality and wisdom, a person may find that the more worldly wisdom of Ecclesiastes provides an anchor. Life may seem pointless, the world may seem to be essentially a place of vanity, but the truth of God and reverence for God must be maintained in the face of radical doubt (Eccl 12:13-14). To those who experience in some fashion the plight of Job, wisdom reaches its limits and points beyond itself; humans cannot always find an answer to the questions, and the last resort is simply the experience of the living God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WISDOM LITERATURE* Literature in the OT that has wisdom as its central theme. It comprises principally the books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes and may also be found in portions of the Psalms and Prophets. The Wisdom Literature contains both the moral substance of true wisdom (as in Proverbs) and also the intellectual explorations of wise men seeking to understand the fundamental problems of human existence (as in Job, Ecclesiastes). Wisdom Literature forms an important part of the OT. It...","summary_en":"WISDOM LITERATURE* Literature in the OT that has wisdom as its central theme. It comprises principally the books of Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes and may also be found in portions of the Psalms and Prophets. The Wisdom Literature contains both the moral substance of true wisdom (as in Proverbs) and also the intellectual explorations of wise men seeking to understand the fundamental problems of human existence (as in Job, Ecclesiastes). Wisdom Literature forms an important part of the OT. It...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":50920,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:13","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","summary_en":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":78546,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:13","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","summary_en":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":106172,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:13","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","summary_en":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":133798,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Eclesiastul 12:13","title_en":"Study Note: Eclesiastul 12:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>12:13-14<\/strong> The editor’s <em>conclusion<\/em> from studying the Teacher’s work is to <em>fear God<\/em> (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to <em>obey his commands<\/em><em>,<\/em> because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","summary_en":"12:13-14 The editor’s conclusion from studying the Teacher’s work is to fear God (see 3:14; 5:7; 7:18; 8:12-13), which includes the need to obey his commands, because everything we do will be judged (see 11:9; 2 Cor 5:10; Heb 9:27).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63163,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63416,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fear of the Lord","title_en":"Fear of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","summary_en":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63723,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90789,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91042,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fear of the Lord","title_en":"Fear of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","summary_en":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91349,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118415,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118668,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fear of the Lord","title_en":"Fear of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","summary_en":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118975,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146041,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Creator-King","title_en":"The Creator-King","content_ro":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Creator-King<\/h3>\n<p>God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10).<\/p>\n<p>Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wisdom. Psalm 29 reveals God’s power in the world and the stability of his creation. Psalm 33 exalts God’s governance, order, and wisdom in creation and underscores the importance of fearing the Lord. In Psalm 89, God’s covenant with David is founded on God’s commitment to creation (89:9-18).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 93–100 reflect on God’s worldwide dominion. The earth belongs to him, and the Creator has demonstrated his power in history. Psalm 104 is a creation hymn that reworks the six days of creation into a marvelous lyric in praise of God’s wisdom.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture calls upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and to show their acceptance of his sovereign rule (see 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 117:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:1–2:4; Pss 8; 19; 28; 29; 33; 89; 93–100; 104; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; Isa 40:25-28; 43:15; 44:24; 51:13; Jer 10:16; Acts 4:23-31; Col 3:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","summary_en":"The Creator-King God created and established the world; the whole of creation is his handiwork (Gen 1–2; Ps 24:1-2; 95:4-5). He also rules over his creation, governing and caring for all that he has made (95:6-7; 96:10). Several psalms celebrate the manifestation of God’s glory in creation (Pss 8; 19; 28; 33; 89; and 104). Psalm 8 centers on God’s endowing human beings with splendor and vesting them as his rulers in creation. Psalm 19 encourages reflection on creation in order to cultivate wi...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146294,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Fear of the Lord","title_en":"Fear of the Lord","content_ro":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Fear of the Lord<\/h3>\n<p>As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the <span>Lord<\/span>” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). <em>Fear<\/em> implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that everything needed for success comes from total dependence on God.<\/p>\n<p>The main theme of Proverbs can be summed up in the ten words that appear near the beginning of the book: “Fear of the <span>Lord<\/span> is the foundation of true knowledge” (Prov 1:7). The fear of the Lord leads people toward humility and away from pride (3:7; 15:33). With such an attitude, people are more apt to listen to God than to their own independent judgment. Fear of the Lord recognizes God’s central place in the order of the world. God is the Creator and Master of all things. This is why Psalm 14:1 labels those who reject God as “fools”. Those who fear the Lord receive wisdom because they begin to understand that everything is under God’s rule and in his service. This is more than just an attitude; it is a way of living that takes into account God’s power and authority and our ultimate accountability to him.<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom is closely connected to a proper relationship with God—both require choices in line with God’s character (see Job 28:28; Prov 14:2; Eccl 12:13). Do you want wisdom? Then you must enter into a relationship with the one who has all wisdom (see 1 Cor 1:1–2:16; Col 2:3).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Job 28:28; Pss 14:1; 111:10; Prov 1:7; 3:7; 8:13; 9:10; 10:27; 14:2, 26-27; 15:16, 33; 19:23; 22:4; Eccl 12:13; Isa 11:1-2; 33:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","summary_en":"Fear of the Lord As Moses is giving final instructions to the people of Israel prior to his death, he exhorts the people several times to “fear the Lord” (see, e.g., Deut 6:1-13; 10:12-21; 31:9-13). Joshua gives the same directive near the end of his life (Josh 24:14). Fear implies respect, awe, and at times, knee-knocking terror. Fear of the Lord encompasses a continual attentiveness to his sovereignty and power. For the Israelites to fear the Lord, it would mean an acknowledgment that every...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146601,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remember Him","title_en":"Remember Him","content_ro":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remember Him<\/h3>\n<p>God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32).<\/p>\n<p>The Teacher in Ecclesiastes likewise pointed to the importance of remembering the Lord. After reflecting throughout the book on the temporality and futility of numerous aspects of life, the Teacher concludes his observations by admonishing his readers to remember the one who is not fleeting (Eccl 12:1-7). No one is able to remain young forever; aging and death are a universal part of life. As such, the Teacher encourages people to focus on God while they are young—before it’s too late. God will hold each of us accountable for all that we do (Eccl 12:13-14); how we live in the present must be informed by the reality of his future judgment.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 8:1-20; Eccl 12:1-7, 13-14; 1 Cor 3:12-14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","summary_en":"Remember Him God rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and made them his own people. Yet God knew that in spite of these striking realities, his people would be prone to forget him (Deut 31:16-21). Moses cautioned the people who were about to enter the Promised Land to never forget what the Lord had done for them (Deut 8:1-20). Sure enough the people of Israel forgot the Lord, which ultimately led to their exile from the land God had given them (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; see also Jer 2:32). T...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":63693,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"All Is “Vapor”","title_en":"All Is “Vapor”","content_ro":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","summary_ro":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","summary_en":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63971,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91319,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"All Is “Vapor”","title_en":"All Is “Vapor”","content_ro":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","summary_ro":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","summary_en":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91597,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118945,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"All Is “Vapor”","title_en":"All Is “Vapor”","content_ro":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","summary_ro":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","summary_en":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119223,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146571,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"All Is “Vapor”","title_en":"All Is “Vapor”","content_ro":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>All Is “Vapor”<\/h3>\n<p>A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world.<\/p>\n<p>At its root, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> means physical “breath” or “vapor.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hebel<\/span> is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is incomprehensible, futile, meaningless, false, transitory, or insubstantial. The term is often used to describe the insubstantiality, unreality, and worthlessness of false gods (Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15). In this sense, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> is the opposite of “glory”—the substantial, weighty, and lasting presence of God. Sometimes the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> stands for the way life is fleeting and momentary, like vapor (Job 7:16; Ps 144:4). In other cases, it refers to the meaninglessness and frustration of life (Pss 78:33; 94:11; Isa 49:4).<\/p>\n<p>There is a long tradition of understanding <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as meaning “vanity,” not in the sense of thinking too highly of oneself, but in the sense of experiencing life as futile and without purpose or meaning. The ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">mataiotēs<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “emptiness” or “futility.” The Latin Vulgate then translated <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> with the Latin word <span class=\"latin\" lang=\"la\">vanitas<\/span>, which means “purposelessness, pointlessness, hollowness, worthlessness.” From the Vulgate comes the long-standing tradition of translating the word as “vanity” in English. Most translators today understand the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in this sense: Life on earth has no apparent purpose or meaning, and all that we do is futile.<\/p>\n<p>Some translators, however, understand <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes to be referring primarily to the transitory impermanence of life. Vapor has no permanence or weight. This translation leads to a different understanding of Ecclesiastes: Life is not so much meaningless and futile as it is impermanent and fleeting. Many phrases in Ecclesiastes allude to the fleeting nature of human life and its efforts. In the New Testament, a similar thought can be found in James 4:13-15. The understanding of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> as “impermanence” in Ecclesiastes has merit in explaining the book coherently; it is, however, a minority view among scholars.<\/p>\n<p>The NLT translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hebel<\/span> in Ecclesiastes as “meaningless.” However, while reading Ecclesiastes, it is helpful to keep in mind the root of the word (“breath” or “vapor”) that stands behind the metaphors.<\/p>\n<p>The brevity, frustration, and apparent meaninglessness of life can be depressing. This discouragement should motivate us toward working more wisely and diligently and enjoying life while we can. We have all observed the apparent absurdity of life’s tragedies, such as the success of a wicked fool or unchecked injustice. But these things come into proportion when we remember God’s sovereignty, because “God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (Eccl 12:14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 32:21; 2 Kgs 17:15; Job 7:16; Pss 62:9; 78:33; 94:11; 144:4; Prov 21:6; Eccl 1:2; Isa 30:7; 49:4; 57:13<\/p>","summary_ro":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","summary_en":"All Is “Vapor” A key word in Ecclesiastes is the Hebrew term hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). This word expresses the core of the Teacher’s judgment concerning life in this world. At its root, hebel means physical “breath” or “vapor.” Hebel is used seventy-eight times in the Old Testament, but in only three instances is the physical meaning clearly intended (Ps 62:9; Prov 21:6; Isa 57:13). In the other seventy-five instances, the word is used metaphorically to describe what is...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146849,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Eclesiastul 12
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Eclesiastul 12
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