Estera 2
1 După aceste lucruri, când s-a potolit mânia împăratului Ahaşveroş, s-a gândit la Vasti, la ce făcuse ea, şi la hotărârea luată cu privire la ea.
2 Atunci cei ce slujeau împăratului au zis: ,,Să se caute pentru împărat nişte fete, fecioare şi frumoase.
3 Împăratul să pună în toate ţinuturile din împărăţia lui dregători însărcinaţi să strângă pe toate fetele, fecioare şi frumoase, în capitala Susa, în casa femeilor, supt privegherea lui Hegai, famenul împăratului şi păzitorul femeilor, care să le dea cele trebuincioase pentru gătit.
4 Şi fata care-i va plăcea împăratului, să fie împărăteasă în locul Vastii.`` Părerea aceasta a fost primită de împărat, şi aşa a făcut.
5 În capitala Susa era un Iudeu numit Mardoheu, fiul lui Iair, fiul lui Şimei, fiul lui Chis, bărbat din Beniamin,
6 care fusese luat din Ierusalim printre robii strămutaţi împreună cu Ieconia, împăratul lui Iuda, de Nebucadneţar, împăratul Babilonului.
7 El creştea pe Hadasa, adică Estera, fata unchiului său; căci ea n-avea nici tată nici mamă. Fata era frumoasă la statură şi plăcută la vedere. După moartea tatălui şi a mamei sale, Mardoheu o luase de suflet.
8 Când s-a auzit porunca împăratului şi hotărârea lui, au fost strânse un mare număr de fete în capitala Susa, supt privegherea lui Hegai. Odată cu ele a fost luată şi Estera şi adusă în casa împăratului, subt privegherea lui Hegai, păzitorul femeilor.
9 Fata i-a plăcut, şi a căpătat trecere înaintea lui. El s-a grăbit să-i dea cele de trebuinţă pentru găteală şi hrană, i-a dat şapte slujnice alese din casa împăratului, şi a pus-o împreună cu slujnicile ei în cea mai bună încăpere din casa femeilor.
10 Estera nu şi-a făcut cunoscut nici poporul, nici naşterea, căci Mardoheu o oprise să vorbească despre aceste lucruri.
11 Şi în fiecare zi Mardoheu se ducea şi venea înaintea curţii casei femeilor, ca să afle cum îi merge Esterei şi ce se face cu ea.
12 Fiecare fată se ducea la rândul ei la împăratul Ahaşveroş, după ce timp de douăsprezece luni împlinea ce era poruncit femeilor. În timpul acesta, aveau grijă să se gătească, ungându-se şase luni cu untdelemn de mirt, şi şase luni cu miresme de mirozne femeieşti.
13 Aşa se ducea fiecare fată la împărat. Şi, când trecea din casa femeilor în casa împăratului, o lăsau să ia cu ea tot ce voia.
14 Se ducea seara; şi a doua zi dimineaţa trecea în a doua casă a femeilor, supt privegherea lui Şaaşgaz, famenul împăratului şi păzitorul ţiitoarelor împăratului. Nu se mai întorcea la împărat, decât când ar fi dorit împăratul şi ar fi chemat-o pe nume.
15 Când i-a venit rândul să se ducă la împărat, Estera, fata lui Abihail, unchiul lui Mardoheu, care o înfiase, n-a cerut decât ce a fost rânduit de Hegai, famenul împăratului şi păzitorul femeilor. Estera căpăta trecere înaintea tuturor celor ce o vedeau.
16 Estera a fost dusă la împăratul Ahaşveroş, în casa împărătească, în luna zecea, adică luna Tebet, în al şaptelea an al domniei lui.
17 Împăratul a iubit pe Estera mai mult decât pe toate celelalte femei, şi ea a căpătat trecere şi iubire înaintea lui mai mult decât toate celelalte fete. I-a pus cununa împărătească pe cap, şi a făcut-o împărăteasă în locul Vastii.
18 Împăratul a dat un mare ospăţ tuturor domnitorilor şi slujitorilor lui, un ospăţ în cinstea Esterei. Cu prilejul acesta a uşurat sarcinile ţinuturilor, şi a împărţit daruri cu o dărnicie împărătească.
19 A doua oară, când s-au strâns fetele, Mardoheu şedea la poarta împăratuluui.
20 Estera nu-şi spusese nici naşterea nici poporul, căci o oprise Mardoheu. Şi ea urma acum poruncile lui Mardoheu cu tot atâta scumpătate ca atunci când o creştea el.
21 În acelaş timp, pe când Mardoheu stătea la poarta împăratului, Bigtan şi Tereş, doi fameni ai împăratului, păzitorii pragului, s-au lăsat biruiţi de o supărare şi au vrut să întindă mâna împotriva împăratului Ahaşveroş.
22 Mardoheu a avut cunoştinţă de lucrul acesta, şi a dat de ştire împărătesei Estera, care l-a spus împăratului din partea lui Mardoheu.
23 Faptul fiind cercetat şi găsit întocmai, cei doi fameni au fost spânzuraţi de un lemn. Şi lucrul acesta a fost scris în cartea Cronicilor în faţa împăratului.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":11176,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":6215,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Chamberlain*","title_en":"Chamberlain*","content_ro":"<h3>CHAMBERLAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHAMBERLAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHAMBERLAIN* Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, kjv) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).","summary_en":"CHAMBERLAIN* Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, kjv) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11280,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eunuch","title_en":"Eunuch","content_ro":"<h3>EUNUCH<\/h3>\n<p>Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, <span>neb<\/span>). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, <span>neb<\/span>; 1 Chr 28:1, <span>neb<\/span>), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8).<\/p>\n<p>The Ethiopian eunuch of Acts 8:27-39 was probably minister of the treasury and has been credited with founding Christianity in Ethiopia.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus mentioned three classes of eunuchs (Mt 19:12), including those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom. This is generally understood in a metaphorical sense of voluntarily forgoing marriage in order to serve the kingdom (e.g., John the Baptist, Jesus, and the apostle Paul).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EUNUCH<\/h3>\n<p>Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, <span>neb<\/span>). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, <span>neb<\/span>; 1 Chr 28:1, <span>neb<\/span>), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8).<\/p>\n<p>The Ethiopian eunuch of Acts 8:27-39 was probably minister of the treasury and has been credited with founding Christianity in Ethiopia.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus mentioned three classes of eunuchs (Mt 19:12), including those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom. This is generally understood in a metaphorical sense of voluntarily forgoing marriage in order to serve the kingdom (e.g., John the Baptist, Jesus, and the apostle Paul).<\/p>","summary_ro":"EUNUCH Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, neb). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, neb; 1 Chr 28:1, neb), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8). ...","summary_en":"EUNUCH Officer or chamberlain in the court or household of a ruler, often assigned to the women’s quarters. Many of these men were emasculated, though not always (cf. Gn 39:1, neb). Eunuchs were public officials in Israel (1 Sm 8:15, neb; 1 Chr 28:1, neb), Persia (Est 2:3), Ethiopia (Jer 38:7; Acts 8:27), and Babylon (Dn 1:3). Eunuchs were not included in public worship in Israel (Dt 23:1), but the prophet Isaiah referred to their restoration in the messianic kingdom (Is 56:3-5; see Acts 8). ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16051,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hegai, Hege*","title_en":"Hegai, Hege*","content_ro":"<h3>HEGAI, HEGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Chamberlain of Ahasuerus and keeper of his harem when Esther was chosen as queen (Est 2:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEGAI, HEGE*<\/h3>\n<p>Chamberlain of Ahasuerus and keeper of his harem when Esther was chosen as queen (Est 2:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEGAI, HEGE* Chamberlain of Ahasuerus and keeper of his harem when Esther was chosen as queen (Est 2:3).","summary_en":"HEGAI, HEGE* Chamberlain of Ahasuerus and keeper of his harem when Esther was chosen as queen (Est 2:3).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":23983,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Maiden Maid","title_en":"Maiden Maid","content_ro":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAID, MAIDEN<\/h3>\n<p>Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.”<\/p>\n<p>One of these words is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.”<\/p>\n<p>Another term is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “maid(en),” “female slave,” and “slave girl.” Although both <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’amah<\/span> refer to female slaves, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiphchah<\/span> seems to imply that a closer relationship existed between the slave and the family to whom she belonged. In the patriarchal story this term is often employed in reference both to female slaves in general and specifically to the concubines who were also slaves to the free wife of their husbands (Gn 16, 29–30).<\/p>\n<p>Still another Hebrew term for “maiden” is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">bethulah<\/span><em>.<\/em> This term refers specifically to a virgin, or a young woman of marriageable age (Gn 24:16; Ex 22:16). The OT prophets sometimes used this term figuratively to refer to a city or country as a “virgin” (Jer 31:21; Am 5:2).<\/p>\n<p>Another word, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">na‘arah<\/span><em>,<\/em> is itself used in several ways in the OT. Often it refers to an unmarried girl (Est 2:4); at other times it is used in speaking of a servant (Est 4:4; Ru 2:23). This same word is the base of the proper name of a woman (Naarah, the wife of Ashhur, in 1 Chr 4:5-6) and of a city in Ephraim near Jericho (Jos 16:7).<\/p>\n<p>For many years controversy has surrounded the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span><em>,<\/em> the word for maiden used in Isaiah 7:14. The dispute arises because of the varied definitions of the word throughout the OT (“girl,” “young woman,” “young woman of marriageable age, presumably a virgin”). Only context can accurately determine the meaning of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> in any given instance. Looking at Isaiah 7:14 from a NT perspective, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘almah<\/span> is a reference to the virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus (see Mt 1:23).<\/p>\n<p>Several Greek words are translated as “maiden” in the English NT. The meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">korasion<\/span> is simply “girl,” “little girl,” or “maiden” (Mt 9:24-25). Another word, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">paidiske<\/span><em>,<\/em> originally referred to a “young woman” but later came to mean “a female slave,” “a servant-maid” or “a servant girl” (Mk 14:66; Lk 12:45). It is a diminutive of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pais<\/span> (a Greek word denoting “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child”) (Lk 8:51, 54). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Numphe<\/span> is the Greek word meaning “young wife,” “bride,” and “daughter-in-law” (Lk 12:53; Rv 21:2). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Parthenos<\/span> is the usual Greek term for “virgin” and occurs 14 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Slave, Slavery.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","summary_en":"MAID, MAIDEN Young unmarried woman, often of the servant class. In the OT, five Hebrew words with varying shades of meaning are translated by the English word “maiden.” One of these words is ’amah. Various English translations of this word include “bondmaid,” “bondwoman,” “handmaid(en),” “maid(en),” “maid servant,” “female servant,” “female slave,” “slave girl,” and “girl.” Another term is shiphchah. This Hebrew word is of similar meaning to ’amah. It is translated variously as “handmaid,” “m...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":4335,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Benjamin","title_en":"Tribe of Benjamin","content_ro":"<h3>BENJAMIN, T<span>ribe of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe was allotted territory between Judah and Ephraim, a strip of land between Mt Ephraim and the Judean hills. The southern boundary with Judah was clearly defined: through the valley of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem to a point north of the Dead Sea. Its eastern limit was the Jordan, and its northern boundary with Ephraim ran from the Jordan to Bethel to Ataroth-addar south of Lower Beth-horon (Jos 18:11-20).<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin’s territory extended about 28 miles (45.1 kilometers) from west to east and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north to south. It was hilly country, strategically located to control key passes, but with fertile hill basins. Among its hill settlements were the important towns of Jerusalem, Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Mizpeh (Jos 18:21-28). Not all of its towns were immediately taken from their previous possessors; Jerusalem, for example, was in the hands of the Jebusites until David’s time. The environment bred a hardy race of highlanders, well described in Jacob’s blessing of Benjamin as “a wolf that prowls” (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p>Ehud of Benjamin was one of the early judges in Canaan, a “deliverer” of the Israelites who killed Eglon, king of Moab (Jgs 3:15). Members of the tribe later helped Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera (5:14). The tribe continued to produce great men: political leaders (1 Chr 27:21), captains in Saul’s army (2 Sm 4:2) and David’s army (23:29), skilled archers (1 Chr 8:40), and overseers in Solomon’s labor force (1 Kgs 4:18).<\/p>\n<p>Less noble traits were also shown by Benjamin’s descendants. Palti, a Benjaminite, was one of the scouts making a bad report when the 12 spies returned from the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-2, 9, 31-33). The tribe as a whole displayed disobedience and lack of consistent courage by failing to clear their inheritance of Canaanites (Jgs 1:21). Following the custom of the day, the whole tribe defended the lewd treatment and murder of a concubine from another tribe by a few of their members (chs 19–20). That act of gross immorality united the other tribes against them, and the tribe of Benjamin was almost decimated. To keep the tribe from dying out, the other tribes allowed the Benjaminites to take captive several hundred women who then became their wives (Jgs 21).<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin’s tribe proved to be dependable in various ways. During the exodus from Egypt, it took its place in the organization (Nm 1:11) and the army (2:22) and made its tribal offerings (7:60). It demonstrated remarkable loyalty to the throne, initially to Saul and his family (2 Sm 2:8-31). Later David received its faithful support, as did his descendants, for Benjamin remained with Judah, loyal to Solomon’s son Rehoboam when Jeroboam led a secession (1 Kgs 12:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>Other men of Benjamin (often called Benjaminites) spoken of in the OT include Cush, of whom David sang (Ps 7 superscription); Jeremiah the prophet, who, though a Levite, lived within Benjamin’s tribe (Jer 1:1; 32:8); and Mordecai, uncle and adviser to Queen Esther (Est 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul made no apologies for his ancestry, twice referring to himself as a Hebrew of Benjamin’s tribe (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5). In his sermon at Antioch of Pisidia, Paul also mentioned Benjamin as the tribe of King Saul, in his brief account of Israel’s history (Acts 13:21). In one other NT reference Benjamin is named with the other 11 tribes in John’s apocalyptic vision (Rv 7:8). <em>See<\/em> Benjamin (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BENJAMIN, T<span>ribe of<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe was allotted territory between Judah and Ephraim, a strip of land between Mt Ephraim and the Judean hills. The southern boundary with Judah was clearly defined: through the valley of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem to a point north of the Dead Sea. Its eastern limit was the Jordan, and its northern boundary with Ephraim ran from the Jordan to Bethel to Ataroth-addar south of Lower Beth-horon (Jos 18:11-20).<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin’s territory extended about 28 miles (45.1 kilometers) from west to east and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north to south. It was hilly country, strategically located to control key passes, but with fertile hill basins. Among its hill settlements were the important towns of Jerusalem, Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Mizpeh (Jos 18:21-28). Not all of its towns were immediately taken from their previous possessors; Jerusalem, for example, was in the hands of the Jebusites until David’s time. The environment bred a hardy race of highlanders, well described in Jacob’s blessing of Benjamin as “a wolf that prowls” (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p>Ehud of Benjamin was one of the early judges in Canaan, a “deliverer” of the Israelites who killed Eglon, king of Moab (Jgs 3:15). Members of the tribe later helped Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera (5:14). The tribe continued to produce great men: political leaders (1 Chr 27:21), captains in Saul’s army (2 Sm 4:2) and David’s army (23:29), skilled archers (1 Chr 8:40), and overseers in Solomon’s labor force (1 Kgs 4:18).<\/p>\n<p>Less noble traits were also shown by Benjamin’s descendants. Palti, a Benjaminite, was one of the scouts making a bad report when the 12 spies returned from the land of Canaan (Nm 13:1-2, 9, 31-33). The tribe as a whole displayed disobedience and lack of consistent courage by failing to clear their inheritance of Canaanites (Jgs 1:21). Following the custom of the day, the whole tribe defended the lewd treatment and murder of a concubine from another tribe by a few of their members (chs 19–20). That act of gross immorality united the other tribes against them, and the tribe of Benjamin was almost decimated. To keep the tribe from dying out, the other tribes allowed the Benjaminites to take captive several hundred women who then became their wives (Jgs 21).<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin’s tribe proved to be dependable in various ways. During the exodus from Egypt, it took its place in the organization (Nm 1:11) and the army (2:22) and made its tribal offerings (7:60). It demonstrated remarkable loyalty to the throne, initially to Saul and his family (2 Sm 2:8-31). Later David received its faithful support, as did his descendants, for Benjamin remained with Judah, loyal to Solomon’s son Rehoboam when Jeroboam led a secession (1 Kgs 12:21-24).<\/p>\n<p>Other men of Benjamin (often called Benjaminites) spoken of in the OT include Cush, of whom David sang (Ps 7 superscription); Jeremiah the prophet, who, though a Levite, lived within Benjamin’s tribe (Jer 1:1; 32:8); and Mordecai, uncle and adviser to Queen Esther (Est 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the apostle Paul made no apologies for his ancestry, twice referring to himself as a Hebrew of Benjamin’s tribe (Rom 11:1; Phil 3:5). In his sermon at Antioch of Pisidia, Paul also mentioned Benjamin as the tribe of King Saul, in his brief account of Israel’s history (Acts 13:21). In one other NT reference Benjamin is named with the other 11 tribes in John’s apocalyptic vision (Rv 7:8). <em>See<\/em> Benjamin (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BENJAMIN, Tribe of One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2). At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe w...","summary_en":"BENJAMIN, Tribe of One of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Nm 1:36). In the OT the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Jgs 20:13-16; 1 Chr 12:1-2). At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe w...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11170,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18347,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jair","title_en":"Jair","content_ro":"<h3>JAIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s brother (1 Chr 20:5). In 2 Samuel 21:19 he is called Jaare-oregim.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Mordecai (Est 2:5). Because of the time lapse from the capture of Jeconiah, king of Judah (597 <span>BC<\/span>), to the beginning of the reign of Xerxes, king of Persia (486 <span>BC<\/span>), Jair was either the one taken captive with Jeconiah or his father, Shimei, was, in which case Jair would have been born during the Captivity.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JAIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s brother (1 Chr 20:5). In 2 Samuel 21:19 he is called Jaare-oregim.<\/li>\n<li>4. Father of Mordecai (Est 2:5). Because of the time lapse from the capture of Jeconiah, king of Judah (597 <span>BC<\/span>), to the beginning of the reign of Xerxes, king of Persia (486 <span>BC<\/span>), Jair was either the one taken captive with Jeconiah or his father, Shimei, was, in which case Jair would have been born during the Captivity.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JAIR 1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23). See also Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair. 2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5). 3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s...","summary_en":"JAIR 1. Descendant of Manasseh (Nm 32:41), who at the time of the Conquest took several villages in the Argob region of Bashan and Gilead and called them after his own name, Havvoth-jair, meaning “Towns of Jair” (Dt 3:14; cf. Jos 13:30; 1 Kgs 4:13; 1 Chr 2:23). See also Havoth-jair, Havvoth-jair. 2. One of the judges of Israel. He judged Israel 22 years. His being a Gileadite makes it probable that he was a descendant of #1 above (Jgs 10:3-5). 3. Father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi, Goliath’s...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22195,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kish","title_en":"Kish","content_ro":"<h3>KISH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Benjamite of Gibeah, father of King Saul and a man of some position in the community (1 Sm 9:1). His genealogy is traced for four generations, as is that of Elkanah, the father of Samuel, who would anoint Saul king (1:1).<\/li>\n<p>There is some obscurity in the genealogical information about Kish. His father’s name is listed as Abiel in 1 Samuel 9:1. If the Kish mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:30 is the same person, then we must conclude that Abiel was also known as Jeiel. But it may be that this second Kish was an uncle of Saul’s father. A further obscurity results from 1 Chronicles 8:33 and 9:39, where Ner, not Abiel, is said to be the father of Kish. Yet in 1 Samuel 14:51 Abiel is said to be the father of two sons whose names were Ner and Kish. The solution probably lies in the assumption that Ner in the Chronicles references was an earlier ancestor, probably Abiel’s father or grandfather. If that should be the case, then the father-son relationship between Ner and Kish should be taken in an extended sense, as elsewhere in the OT. No other details of Kish’s life are available. His grave was in Zela of Benjamin (2 Sm 21:14). The <span>kjv<\/span> of Acts 13:21 spells his name Cis.<\/p>\n<li>2. Levite, grandson of Merari, Mahli’s son and the father of Jerahmeel (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Abdi’s son, another Levite of the family of Merari. He was one of the Levites who assisted Hezekiah in the cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite and the great-grandfather of Mordecai. Mordecai was carried into exile by Nebuchadnezzar in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (Est 2:5), together with King Jehoiachin and the prophet Ezekiel.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KISH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Benjamite of Gibeah, father of King Saul and a man of some position in the community (1 Sm 9:1). His genealogy is traced for four generations, as is that of Elkanah, the father of Samuel, who would anoint Saul king (1:1).<\/li>\n<p>There is some obscurity in the genealogical information about Kish. His father’s name is listed as Abiel in 1 Samuel 9:1. If the Kish mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:30 is the same person, then we must conclude that Abiel was also known as Jeiel. But it may be that this second Kish was an uncle of Saul’s father. A further obscurity results from 1 Chronicles 8:33 and 9:39, where Ner, not Abiel, is said to be the father of Kish. Yet in 1 Samuel 14:51 Abiel is said to be the father of two sons whose names were Ner and Kish. The solution probably lies in the assumption that Ner in the Chronicles references was an earlier ancestor, probably Abiel’s father or grandfather. If that should be the case, then the father-son relationship between Ner and Kish should be taken in an extended sense, as elsewhere in the OT. No other details of Kish’s life are available. His grave was in Zela of Benjamin (2 Sm 21:14). The <span>kjv<\/span> of Acts 13:21 spells his name Cis.<\/p>\n<li>2. Levite, grandson of Merari, Mahli’s son and the father of Jerahmeel (1 Chr 23:21-22; 24:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Abdi’s son, another Levite of the family of Merari. He was one of the Levites who assisted Hezekiah in the cleansing of the temple (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite and the great-grandfather of Mordecai. Mordecai was carried into exile by Nebuchadnezzar in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (Est 2:5), together with King Jehoiachin and the prophet Ezekiel.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KISH 1. Benjamite of Gibeah, father of King Saul and a man of some position in the community (1 Sm 9:1). His genealogy is traced for four generations, as is that of Elkanah, the father of Samuel, who would anoint Saul king (1:1). There is some obscurity in the genealogical information about Kish. His father’s name is listed as Abiel in 1 Samuel 9:1. If the Kish mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:30 is the same person, then we must conclude that Abiel was also known as Jeiel. But it may be that this ...","summary_en":"KISH 1. Benjamite of Gibeah, father of King Saul and a man of some position in the community (1 Sm 9:1). His genealogy is traced for four generations, as is that of Elkanah, the father of Samuel, who would anoint Saul king (1:1). There is some obscurity in the genealogical information about Kish. His father’s name is listed as Abiel in 1 Samuel 9:1. If the Kish mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:30 is the same person, then we must conclude that Abiel was also known as Jeiel. But it may be that this ...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35123,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shimei","title_en":"Shimei","content_ro":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","summary_en":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":18723,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoiachin","title_en":"Jehoiachin","content_ro":"<h3>JEHOIACHIN<\/h3>\n<p>King of Judah for a very brief time (598–597 <span>BC<\/span>). He was the son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem (possibly the Elnathan mentioned by Jeremiah, cf. Jer 26:22; 36:12, 25). The name Jehoiachin means “Yahweh will uphold,” and variations include Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), Jeconiah (1 Chr 3:16-17; Est 2:6; Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2), and Jechoniah (Mt 1:11-12; <span>kjv<\/span> “Jechonias”). Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he was installed as king upon his father’s death, and he ruled for only three months and ten days in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:8; cf. 2 Chr 36:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He inherited a vassal kingdom in revolt. Besieged by the armies of the Babylonian overlord Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin had little choice but to capitulate in the face of insurmountable odds. According to the Babylonian Chronicle, records based on the official annals of the Babylonian kings, Nebuchadnezzar entered Syro-Palestine in December of 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jerusalem on March 16, 597. The Babylonians plundered the palace and temple treasuries. Along with Jehoiachin, his family, prominent military leaders, royal officials, and artisans were taken prisoner and led away to exile in Babylon. Before returning to Babylon, the victorious king placed Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah, now named Zedekiah, on the throne in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:12-17; cf. 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to Jeremiah, the trauma caused by the Babylonian invasion of Judah, and the consequent political upheaval prompted by a succession of three kings in four months, had little impact on the people spiritually (Jer 37–38). This same prophet of God forecast Jehoiachin’s exile and predicted he would have no descendants succeeding him on the throne (22:24-30). In contrast, the false prophet Hananiah prophesied Jehoiachin would be restored to the throne of Judah within two years (28:3-4, 11; cf. vv 12-17).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin’s continuing royal status as the legitimate claimant to the Judahite kingship was reflected in the fact that Ezekiel’s oracles are dated to the year of Jehoiachin’s exile, not Zedekiah’s reign (Ez 1:2; 8:1; 20:1; etc.). Babylonian records confirm this recognition of Jehoiachin’s former position; he retained his title of king and received favorable treatment from the Babylonians. He is certainly the “Yaukin, king of the land of Yahuda” listed in one of the cuneiform tablets; this tablet contains inventories of rations of oil and barley for the king and his five sons and implies they were not imprisoned but living a fairly normal life in Babylonia. At some point Jehoiachin must have been imprisoned, however, because later, during the reign of Evil-merodach, he was released from prison and granted dining privileges with the Babylonian king (c. 562 <span>BC<\/span>; cf. 2 Kgs 25:27-30; Jer 52:31-34). Whether he was imprisoned for attempting to escape or because of Judah’s rebellion against Babylon under Zedekiah is unclear.<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin’s name appears in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:11-12), and some contend that this contradicts Jeremiah’s oracle of judgment against the king’s descendants (Jer 22:30). Yet it is possible to understand Haggai’s blessing of Zerubabbel (Hg 2:20-23) as a reversal of Jeremiah’s curse and the reinstatement of Jehoiachin’s line on the Davidic—and ultimately messianic—throne (cf. Is 56:3-5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEHOIACHIN<\/h3>\n<p>King of Judah for a very brief time (598–597 <span>BC<\/span>). He was the son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem (possibly the Elnathan mentioned by Jeremiah, cf. Jer 26:22; 36:12, 25). The name Jehoiachin means “Yahweh will uphold,” and variations include Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), Jeconiah (1 Chr 3:16-17; Est 2:6; Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2), and Jechoniah (Mt 1:11-12; <span>kjv<\/span> “Jechonias”). Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he was installed as king upon his father’s death, and he ruled for only three months and ten days in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:8; cf. 2 Chr 36:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). He inherited a vassal kingdom in revolt. Besieged by the armies of the Babylonian overlord Nebuchadnezzar, Jehoiachin had little choice but to capitulate in the face of insurmountable odds. According to the Babylonian Chronicle, records based on the official annals of the Babylonian kings, Nebuchadnezzar entered Syro-Palestine in December of 598 <span>BC<\/span> and took Jerusalem on March 16, 597. The Babylonians plundered the palace and temple treasuries. Along with Jehoiachin, his family, prominent military leaders, royal officials, and artisans were taken prisoner and led away to exile in Babylon. Before returning to Babylon, the victorious king placed Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah, now named Zedekiah, on the throne in Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:12-17; cf. 2 Chr 36:10).<\/p>\n<p>According to Jeremiah, the trauma caused by the Babylonian invasion of Judah, and the consequent political upheaval prompted by a succession of three kings in four months, had little impact on the people spiritually (Jer 37–38). This same prophet of God forecast Jehoiachin’s exile and predicted he would have no descendants succeeding him on the throne (22:24-30). In contrast, the false prophet Hananiah prophesied Jehoiachin would be restored to the throne of Judah within two years (28:3-4, 11; cf. vv 12-17).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin’s continuing royal status as the legitimate claimant to the Judahite kingship was reflected in the fact that Ezekiel’s oracles are dated to the year of Jehoiachin’s exile, not Zedekiah’s reign (Ez 1:2; 8:1; 20:1; etc.). Babylonian records confirm this recognition of Jehoiachin’s former position; he retained his title of king and received favorable treatment from the Babylonians. He is certainly the “Yaukin, king of the land of Yahuda” listed in one of the cuneiform tablets; this tablet contains inventories of rations of oil and barley for the king and his five sons and implies they were not imprisoned but living a fairly normal life in Babylonia. At some point Jehoiachin must have been imprisoned, however, because later, during the reign of Evil-merodach, he was released from prison and granted dining privileges with the Babylonian king (c. 562 <span>BC<\/span>; cf. 2 Kgs 25:27-30; Jer 52:31-34). Whether he was imprisoned for attempting to escape or because of Judah’s rebellion against Babylon under Zedekiah is unclear.<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin’s name appears in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:11-12), and some contend that this contradicts Jeremiah’s oracle of judgment against the king’s descendants (Jer 22:30). Yet it is possible to understand Haggai’s blessing of Zerubabbel (Hg 2:20-23) as a reversal of Jeremiah’s curse and the reinstatement of Jehoiachin’s line on the Davidic—and ultimately messianic—throne (cf. Is 56:3-5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEHOIACHIN King of Judah for a very brief time (598–597 BC). He was the son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem (possibly the Elnathan mentioned by Jeremiah, cf. Jer 26:22; 36:12, 25). The name Jehoiachin means “Yahweh will uphold,” and variations include Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), Jeconiah (1 Chr 3:16-17; Est 2:6; Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2), and Jechoniah (Mt 1:11-12; kjv “Jechonias”). Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he was installed as king upon his father...","summary_en":"JEHOIACHIN King of Judah for a very brief time (598–597 BC). He was the son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem (possibly the Elnathan mentioned by Jeremiah, cf. Jer 26:22; 36:12, 25). The name Jehoiachin means “Yahweh will uphold,” and variations include Coniah (Jer 22:24, 28; 37:1), Jeconiah (1 Chr 3:16-17; Est 2:6; Jer 24:1; 27:20; 28:4; 29:2), and Jechoniah (Mt 1:11-12; kjv “Jechonias”). Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he was installed as king upon his father...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48295,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","summary_en":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75921,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","summary_en":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103547,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","summary_en":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131173,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:6<\/strong> <em>His family<\/em> (literally <em>He<\/em>): Since King Jehoiachin was <em>exiled<\/em> in 597 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","summary_en":"2:6 His family (literally He): Since King Jehoiachin was exiled in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:6-16), over 100 years earlier, it was probably one of Mordecai’s ancestors who was part of the group taken into Babylonian captivity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":41813,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69439,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97065,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124691,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4060,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beauty","title_en":"Beauty","content_ro":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","summary_en":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Esther (Person)","title_en":"Esther (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government official and covert leader of the Jewish community (see Est 3:5-6) in Susa, capital of the Persian kingdom. Esther became queen after King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) became displeased with Queen Vashti when she refused to obey his command to attend a banquet (1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (Est 2:21-23). The favor she won in the king’s eyes enabled her to deliver her family and her people from a massacre by Haman, a high official to the king.<\/p>\n<p>The Feast of Purim was instituted to celebrate God’s deliverance of his people through Esther and Mordecai. This festival is still observed annually by Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government official and covert leader of the Jewish community (see Est 3:5-6) in Susa, capital of the Persian kingdom. Esther became queen after King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) became displeased with Queen Vashti when she refused to obey his command to attend a banquet (1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (Est 2:21-23). The favor she won in the king’s eyes enabled her to deliver her family and her people from a massacre by Haman, a high official to the king.<\/p>\n<p>The Feast of Purim was instituted to celebrate God’s deliverance of his people through Esther and Mordecai. This festival is still observed annually by Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER (Person) One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7). Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government offi...","summary_en":"ESTHER (Person) One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7). Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government offi...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11172,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11978,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48296,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","summary_en":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75922,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","summary_en":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103548,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","summary_en":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131174,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:7","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:7<\/strong> <em>Hadassah<\/em> is a Hebrew name that means <em>myrtle;<\/em> <em>Esther<\/em> is a Persian name that means <em>star.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","summary_en":"2:7 Hadassah is a Hebrew name that means myrtle; Esther is a Persian name that means star.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":36479,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Susa","title_en":"Susa","content_ro":"<h3>SUSA<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the non-Semitic people and district of Elam. Susa (modern Shush) is located in southwest Iran, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) north of the Persian Gulf and due east of the well-known city of Babylon. French archaeologists began excavating the site in 1884, discovering that it was occupied as long ago as about 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. Its importance in the OT derives mainly from the fact that it was incorporated into the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus in 550 <span>BC<\/span>. It became a royal city along with Ecbatana (the other main city in Elam), Babylon, and Persepolis. This was the great period of importance for Susa, although it had known an earlier golden age in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>. (The first copy of the law code of Hammurabi ever found was discovered at Susa, dated in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>.)<\/p>\n<p>The center of Persian Susa was an acropolis or citadel that rose above the city as a rectangular platform surrounded by a massive wall. This was the royal quarter within which the palace stood. The palace was the winter residence of the Persian kings.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was a cupbearer at the palace of Susa in the reign of Artaxerxes I (Neh 1:1, 11; 2:1). In Esther 1:2 and 2:8 the young Jewess Esther was introduced to the court of King Ahasuerus, who was evidently the Persian king Xerxes (485–465 <span>BC<\/span>). Most of the action of the book takes place in Susa (cf. Est 3:15; 8:14-15; 9:6-18).<\/p>\n<p>According to Daniel 8:2, the place of Daniel’s vision is Susa. Probably Daniel is not to be regarded as having been there literally, but rather he was spiritually transported there in the vision. Chronologically, Daniel’s vision is set at the end of the Babylonian period, just before the Persian conquest (Dn 8:1; cf. 7:1). At this time Susa controlled the Medians and was not subject to Babylon.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SUSA<\/h3>\n<p>Capital of the non-Semitic people and district of Elam. Susa (modern Shush) is located in southwest Iran, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) north of the Persian Gulf and due east of the well-known city of Babylon. French archaeologists began excavating the site in 1884, discovering that it was occupied as long ago as about 4000 <span>BC<\/span>. Its importance in the OT derives mainly from the fact that it was incorporated into the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus in 550 <span>BC<\/span>. It became a royal city along with Ecbatana (the other main city in Elam), Babylon, and Persepolis. This was the great period of importance for Susa, although it had known an earlier golden age in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>. (The first copy of the law code of Hammurabi ever found was discovered at Susa, dated in the 12th century <span>BC<\/span>.)<\/p>\n<p>The center of Persian Susa was an acropolis or citadel that rose above the city as a rectangular platform surrounded by a massive wall. This was the royal quarter within which the palace stood. The palace was the winter residence of the Persian kings.<\/p>\n<p>Nehemiah was a cupbearer at the palace of Susa in the reign of Artaxerxes I (Neh 1:1, 11; 2:1). In Esther 1:2 and 2:8 the young Jewess Esther was introduced to the court of King Ahasuerus, who was evidently the Persian king Xerxes (485–465 <span>BC<\/span>). Most of the action of the book takes place in Susa (cf. Est 3:15; 8:14-15; 9:6-18).<\/p>\n<p>According to Daniel 8:2, the place of Daniel’s vision is Susa. Probably Daniel is not to be regarded as having been there literally, but rather he was spiritually transported there in the vision. Chronologically, Daniel’s vision is set at the end of the Babylonian period, just before the Persian conquest (Dn 8:1; cf. 7:1). At this time Susa controlled the Medians and was not subject to Babylon.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SUSA Capital of the non-Semitic people and district of Elam. Susa (modern Shush) is located in southwest Iran, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) north of the Persian Gulf and due east of the well-known city of Babylon. French archaeologists began excavating the site in 1884, discovering that it was occupied as long ago as about 4000 BC. Its importance in the OT derives mainly from the fact that it was incorporated into the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus in 550 BC. It became a royal city al...","summary_en":"SUSA Capital of the non-Semitic people and district of Elam. Susa (modern Shush) is located in southwest Iran, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) north of the Persian Gulf and due east of the well-known city of Babylon. French archaeologists began excavating the site in 1884, discovering that it was occupied as long ago as about 4000 BC. Its importance in the OT derives mainly from the fact that it was incorporated into the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus in 550 BC. It became a royal city al...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":48297,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","summary_en":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75923,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","summary_en":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103549,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","summary_en":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131175,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:9<\/strong> <em>ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments:<\/em> Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned <em>seven<\/em> of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","summary_en":"2:9 ordered a special menu . . . beauty treatments: Hegai knew the king’s taste and singled out the best prospects for special attention. • Hegai assigned seven of the best assistants to Esther, indicating that he thought she was one of the very best candidates for becoming the queen.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":48298,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","summary_en":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75924,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","summary_en":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103550,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","summary_en":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131176,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:10","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:10<\/strong> Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","summary_en":"2:10 Mordecai had probably already experienced some prejudice against Jews. Esther’s Jewish background would later become the key to her exposing Haman’s terrible plot.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":28365,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Oil","title_en":"Oil","content_ro":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OIL<\/h3>\n<p>Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings.<\/p>\n<p>The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and animals, oil became an established medium of exchange. Solomon used it as part of the payment to Hiram for construction expenses connected with the temple (1 Kgs 5:11; Ez 27:17).<\/p>\n<p>Because oil was essential for everyday life, it was an effective and acceptable medium of barter. Oil was used in the preparation of most food (1 Kgs 17:12-16). The common cake or patty of grain, which formed the basis of the noon meal, would be cooked on a griddle with a little oil.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, oil was used for anointing the body after a bath (Ru 3:3; 2 Sm 12:20). It was frequently used on festive occasions, and at Egyptian banquets the heads of both the guests and the female entertainers were anointed. In the NT, the anointing of the sick is mentioned (Jas 5:14). Olive oil could also be taken internally as a medicine for the relief of gastric disorders. It had a soothing effect and was also used as a mild laxative. It was applied externally as an ointment for bruises, burns, cuts, and abrasions (Is 1:6; Mk 6:13; Lk 10:34).<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the sun set, the only source of light was the oil lamp. Often the small portable one could be placed easily on a shelf, but in large homes, palaces, synagogues, or temples, the lamp could rest on a tall metal base like a standard lamp. The wick of flax (Is 42:3) or hemp was placed in the oil that gave out a flame until it was extinguished or the supply of fuel ran out. Torches were used in the streets both to light the way and for additional security. They added immeasurably to the festive atmosphere of evening processions. Torches were an essential part of the wedding procession, and normally those carrying the torches brought a quantity of oil in a container in case there was a delay and their supply was exhausted. This scene is vividly portrayed in Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In other ceremonial events, oil had a special meaning when used for the anointing of kings (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39) and priests (Ex 29:7). It was symbolic of the office and of the recognition of God’s blessing on the officeholder.<\/p>\n<p>Quantities of oil were used in the temple. It was donated as part of the firstfruit offering (Ex 22:29) and was also subject to tithing (Dt 12:17). Oil was frequently used for the ceremonial aspect of temple life or as part of the offering. The grain offering was mixed with oil (Lv 8:26; Nm 7:19), and the oil in the lamp that burned in the sanctuary constantly needed replenishing (Lv 24:2). The daily sacrifice required the use of oil (Ex 29:40), although the sin offering (Lv 5:11) and the jealousy offering (Nm 5:15) specifically did not use oil.<\/p>\n<p>A pestle and mortar, or a stone press, pressed oil from the olives (Ex 27:20). Where the latter was used, the pulp initially produced by the press was often trodden out or subjected to further extensive pressing. Stone presses were set up to process the quantities of berries available at the Mt of Olives. The word for “oil press” was <em>gatt-semen,<\/em> hence the name Gethsemane.<\/p>\n<p>Oil was symbolically associated with joy, festivity, ceremony, honor, light, and health (both spiritual and physical), while its absence spelled sorrow (Jl 1:10) and the withdrawal of all that is good in life.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Anoint; Food and Food Preparation; Medicine and Medical Practice; Ointment; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","summary_en":"OIL Substance most commonly produced from the olive berry, although the word could also apply to oil of myrrh (Est 2:12). Oil was used primarily in cooking, but additionally as a cosmetic for anointing the body, for medicinal purposes, as a source of light, for anointing kings and priests, and in religious offerings. The growth of olive trees was widespread, and the Israelites took advantage of this major crop to establish a thriving trade in oil with Tyre and Egypt. Like precious metals and ...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28401,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ointment","title_en":"Ointment","content_ro":"<h3>OINTMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Various preparations, generally of a spicy nature with an oil base. In Palestine, olive oil was the chief base of ointments and was itself considered an ointment. The OT does not distinguish between “oil” and “ointment.” In Egypt and Mesopotamia, numerous vegetable oils and animal fats formed the basis of ointments. Among the vegetable oils, some of the more important include castor oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, radish oil, colocynth oil, and oil from various nuts.<\/p>\n<p>Ointments played an important and visible role in antiquity. In the hot and dry climate of the Near East, ointments gave a measure of protection. Widespread medicinal uses, soothing qualities, and effectiveness in masking odors made the use of ointments a virtual necessity among all classes. The OT mentions apothecaries or perfumers (1 Sm 8:13; 2 Chr 16:14), artisans who were organized into guilds (Neh 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>In general, ointments were made by boiling aromatic substances in oil (cf. Jb 41:31). Perfumed ointments were combinations of certain raw materials with specially prepared oil. In the OT, qualifying terms such as “fragrant” (Sg 1:3) or “precious” (Eccl 7:1) signify perfumed oils. Ointments could be stored in a variety of vessels, but flasks made of alabaster were preferred. An alabaster jar held the expensive ointment with which Mary anointed Jesus in Bethany (Mk 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>Ointments had a variety of uses. Among the Semites in particular, ointments acquired important associations. Aaron, his sons, the tabernacle, and its furnishings were all consecrated by holy anointing oil. This compound consisted of myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, and cassia mixed with olive oil (Ex 30:23-25). Kings and prophets were anointed, but not with the holy anointing oil mixture.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, perfumed ointments controlled unpleasant odors. Applications were made to the body (2 Sm 12:20), clothing (Ps 45:8), or personal objects (Prv 7:17). Women utilized ointments for cleansing the skin and enhancing the attractiveness of their skin (Est 2:12). The fragrance of certain ointments attracted the attention of the opposite sex (Sg 4:10). Not surprisingly, the Song of Songs has several references to fragrant ointments.<\/p>\n<p>The use of ointments to refresh and soothe guests was a mark of hospitality in the ancient Near East. Cones of ointment placed on the heads of guests and allowed to drip down over the body were used by the Egyptians (cf. Ps 133:2). As a sign of respect and honor, the head of a guest was anointed with oil. Jesus chided a Pharisee who neglected this traditional mark of hospitality (Lk 7:37-40). Mary anointed Jesus with a costly flask of nard, a fragrant ointment obtained from the roots of an aromatic herb from India (Mk 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>Ointments were used in the burial process. In the NT a corpse would be washed (Acts 9:37) and anointed with ointments (Mk 16:1). The body was wrapped in linen garments with spices and ointments (Lk 23:56; Jn 19:40). Both the Jews and the Romans utilized nard for burials. A mixture of myrrh and aloes was used in the burial of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Medicinal uses of ointment were frequent. Oil was applied to wounds (Lk 10:34). Balm (probably an aromatic gum) had well-known medicinal uses and is associated with Gilead (Jer 8:22). Balm was an item of export from Palestine (Gn 37:25; Ez 27:17). Biblical reference is made to a famous eye ointment produced and exported by the city of Laodicea (Rv 3:18). Ointments formed an important commodity for merchants in the Roman period (18:13).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing with oil came to be associated with gladness and joy (Ps 45:7; Is 61:3). Thus, one was to refrain from anointing during times of mourning (2 Sm 14:2). The lack of oil for anointing was viewed as judgment (Mi 6:15). Shields were anointed with oil to make them supple and possibly to help deflect projectiles (2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Oil; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OINTMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Various preparations, generally of a spicy nature with an oil base. In Palestine, olive oil was the chief base of ointments and was itself considered an ointment. The OT does not distinguish between “oil” and “ointment.” In Egypt and Mesopotamia, numerous vegetable oils and animal fats formed the basis of ointments. Among the vegetable oils, some of the more important include castor oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, radish oil, colocynth oil, and oil from various nuts.<\/p>\n<p>Ointments played an important and visible role in antiquity. In the hot and dry climate of the Near East, ointments gave a measure of protection. Widespread medicinal uses, soothing qualities, and effectiveness in masking odors made the use of ointments a virtual necessity among all classes. The OT mentions apothecaries or perfumers (1 Sm 8:13; 2 Chr 16:14), artisans who were organized into guilds (Neh 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>In general, ointments were made by boiling aromatic substances in oil (cf. Jb 41:31). Perfumed ointments were combinations of certain raw materials with specially prepared oil. In the OT, qualifying terms such as “fragrant” (Sg 1:3) or “precious” (Eccl 7:1) signify perfumed oils. Ointments could be stored in a variety of vessels, but flasks made of alabaster were preferred. An alabaster jar held the expensive ointment with which Mary anointed Jesus in Bethany (Mk 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>Ointments had a variety of uses. Among the Semites in particular, ointments acquired important associations. Aaron, his sons, the tabernacle, and its furnishings were all consecrated by holy anointing oil. This compound consisted of myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, and cassia mixed with olive oil (Ex 30:23-25). Kings and prophets were anointed, but not with the holy anointing oil mixture.<\/p>\n<p>As a cosmetic, perfumed ointments controlled unpleasant odors. Applications were made to the body (2 Sm 12:20), clothing (Ps 45:8), or personal objects (Prv 7:17). Women utilized ointments for cleansing the skin and enhancing the attractiveness of their skin (Est 2:12). The fragrance of certain ointments attracted the attention of the opposite sex (Sg 4:10). Not surprisingly, the Song of Songs has several references to fragrant ointments.<\/p>\n<p>The use of ointments to refresh and soothe guests was a mark of hospitality in the ancient Near East. Cones of ointment placed on the heads of guests and allowed to drip down over the body were used by the Egyptians (cf. Ps 133:2). As a sign of respect and honor, the head of a guest was anointed with oil. Jesus chided a Pharisee who neglected this traditional mark of hospitality (Lk 7:37-40). Mary anointed Jesus with a costly flask of nard, a fragrant ointment obtained from the roots of an aromatic herb from India (Mk 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>Ointments were used in the burial process. In the NT a corpse would be washed (Acts 9:37) and anointed with ointments (Mk 16:1). The body was wrapped in linen garments with spices and ointments (Lk 23:56; Jn 19:40). Both the Jews and the Romans utilized nard for burials. A mixture of myrrh and aloes was used in the burial of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Medicinal uses of ointment were frequent. Oil was applied to wounds (Lk 10:34). Balm (probably an aromatic gum) had well-known medicinal uses and is associated with Gilead (Jer 8:22). Balm was an item of export from Palestine (Gn 37:25; Ez 27:17). Biblical reference is made to a famous eye ointment produced and exported by the city of Laodicea (Rv 3:18). Ointments formed an important commodity for merchants in the Roman period (18:13).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing with oil came to be associated with gladness and joy (Ps 45:7; Is 61:3). Thus, one was to refrain from anointing during times of mourning (2 Sm 14:2). The lack of oil for anointing was viewed as judgment (Mi 6:15). Shields were anointed with oil to make them supple and possibly to help deflect projectiles (2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Medicine and Medical Practice; Oil; Plants (Olive, Olive Tree).<\/p>","summary_ro":"OINTMENT Various preparations, generally of a spicy nature with an oil base. In Palestine, olive oil was the chief base of ointments and was itself considered an ointment. The OT does not distinguish between “oil” and “ointment.” In Egypt and Mesopotamia, numerous vegetable oils and animal fats formed the basis of ointments. Among the vegetable oils, some of the more important include castor oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, radish oil, colocynth oil, and oil from various nuts. Ointments played a...","summary_en":"OINTMENT Various preparations, generally of a spicy nature with an oil base. In Palestine, olive oil was the chief base of ointments and was itself considered an ointment. The OT does not distinguish between “oil” and “ointment.” In Egypt and Mesopotamia, numerous vegetable oils and animal fats formed the basis of ointments. Among the vegetable oils, some of the more important include castor oil, sesame oil, linseed oil, radish oil, colocynth oil, and oil from various nuts. Ointments played a...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48299,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:12","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","summary_en":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:12","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","summary_en":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103551,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:12","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","summary_en":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131177,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:12","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:12<\/strong> The <em>twelve months<\/em> of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as <em>beauty treatments<\/em><em>,<\/em> but the focus here is on physical beauty.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","summary_en":"2:12 The twelve months of preparation no doubt involved training in court customs as well as beauty treatments, but the focus here is on physical beauty.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":7370,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Concubinage*, Concubines","title_en":"Concubinage*, Concubines","content_ro":"<h3>CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave or part of the booty of war (Jgs 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>A man might have a concubine simply as an economical form of marriage, since no dowry, or bride-price, was required. A concubine could add to a man’s prestige by giving him two wives and thus an increased capacity for children. Such offspring were normally delivered onto the knees of the legal wife, thus establishing their legitimacy as family members. The concubine was also another servant to add to the man’s work force.<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarchal period, concubinage was customary (Gn 22:24; 35:22; 36:12), especially when the primary wife was childless (Gn 16:1-3; 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:32). A concubine could exercise certain rights and secure recognition and inheritance for her offspring (note Gn 49:1-28, where the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah were included along with the sons of Leah and Rachel; cf. Gn 35:22-26). The custom was not suppressed by the Mosaic law, which must have included concubines in its treatment of multiple wives (Dt 17:17; 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>Concubinage continued through the period of the judges. Gideon had a concubine (Jgs 8:31), as did an unnamed man of Levi’s tribe (Jgs 19). Abuse of that man’s concubine by men from Benjamin’s tribe caused a bloody civil war (Jgs 20–21). During the period of Israel’s monarchy, the luxury of concubines could be afforded only by kings such as Saul (2 Sm 3:7), David (5:13; 15:16), Solomon (1 Kgs 11:3), and Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:21). Royal harems existed in many other cultures of that time, including Egypt, Persia (Est 2:14), and Babylon (Dn 5:2-3, 23).<\/p>\n<p>Concubines were thus a legitimate part of many ancient cultures, even when a society acknowledged the superiority of monogamous marriage. Concubinage was fostered by a desire for prestige and a large family, but could at times degenerate into a license for sexual freedom (cf. Eccl 2:8). Concubinage was part of the contemporary Greek and Roman cultures, but it was not in keeping with the teachings of Jesus (Mt 19:1-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES<\/h3>\n<p>Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave or part of the booty of war (Jgs 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>A man might have a concubine simply as an economical form of marriage, since no dowry, or bride-price, was required. A concubine could add to a man’s prestige by giving him two wives and thus an increased capacity for children. Such offspring were normally delivered onto the knees of the legal wife, thus establishing their legitimacy as family members. The concubine was also another servant to add to the man’s work force.<\/p>\n<p>In the patriarchal period, concubinage was customary (Gn 22:24; 35:22; 36:12), especially when the primary wife was childless (Gn 16:1-3; 25:5-6; 1 Chr 1:32). A concubine could exercise certain rights and secure recognition and inheritance for her offspring (note Gn 49:1-28, where the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah were included along with the sons of Leah and Rachel; cf. Gn 35:22-26). The custom was not suppressed by the Mosaic law, which must have included concubines in its treatment of multiple wives (Dt 17:17; 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>Concubinage continued through the period of the judges. Gideon had a concubine (Jgs 8:31), as did an unnamed man of Levi’s tribe (Jgs 19). Abuse of that man’s concubine by men from Benjamin’s tribe caused a bloody civil war (Jgs 20–21). During the period of Israel’s monarchy, the luxury of concubines could be afforded only by kings such as Saul (2 Sm 3:7), David (5:13; 15:16), Solomon (1 Kgs 11:3), and Rehoboam (2 Chr 11:21). Royal harems existed in many other cultures of that time, including Egypt, Persia (Est 2:14), and Babylon (Dn 5:2-3, 23).<\/p>\n<p>Concubines were thus a legitimate part of many ancient cultures, even when a society acknowledged the superiority of monogamous marriage. Concubinage was fostered by a desire for prestige and a large family, but could at times degenerate into a license for sexual freedom (cf. Eccl 2:8). Concubinage was part of the contemporary Greek and Roman cultures, but it was not in keeping with the teachings of Jesus (Mt 19:1-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Family Life and Relations; Marriage, Marriage Customs.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave o...","summary_en":"CONCUBINAGE*, CONCUBINES Practice of a man cohabiting with a woman (concubine) who is regarded only as his sexual partner or as a secondary wife in his household, of lower station than his primary wife. Concubinage was practiced in many ancient cultures, especially in Mesopotamia, where the king maintained a harem and where a private citizen might have one or two concubines in addition to his primary wife. Both types of concubinage are referred to in the Bible. A concubine was often a slave o...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34558,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shaashgaz","title_en":"Shaashgaz","content_ro":"<h3>SHAASHGAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch of King Ahasuerus, in charge of the concubines (Est 2:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAASHGAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch of King Ahasuerus, in charge of the concubines (Est 2:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAASHGAZ Eunuch of King Ahasuerus, in charge of the concubines (Est 2:14).","summary_en":"SHAASHGAZ Eunuch of King Ahasuerus, in charge of the concubines (Est 2:14).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","summary_en":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","summary_en":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103552,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","summary_en":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131178,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:14","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:14<\/strong> <em>the second harem:<\/em> Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under <em>the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch<\/em>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","summary_en":"2:14 the second harem: Each woman would spend one night with the king in his bedroom and then live essentially as a widow the rest of her life unless the king remembered her name and called for her. The women in the second harem lived an easy life in a luxurious setting under the care of Shaashgaz, the king’s eunuch.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":165,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abihail","title_en":"Abihail","content_ro":"<h3>ABIHAIL<\/h3>\n<p>Name used for both men and women in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35).<\/p>\n<li>2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one wife is mentioned at first, so Abihail was probably the mother of Rehoboam’s first wife, Mahalath. This Abihail was thus a daughter of Eliab, David’s eldest brother. She married her cousin Jerimoth, one of David’s sons.<\/li>\n<li>5. Esther’s father, and uncle of Mordecai (Est 2:15; 9:29).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ABIHAIL<\/h3>\n<p>Name used for both men and women in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35).<\/p>\n<li>2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one wife is mentioned at first, so Abihail was probably the mother of Rehoboam’s first wife, Mahalath. This Abihail was thus a daughter of Eliab, David’s eldest brother. She married her cousin Jerimoth, one of David’s sons.<\/li>\n<li>5. Esther’s father, and uncle of Mordecai (Est 2:15; 9:29).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ABIHAIL Name used for both men and women in the OT. 1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35). 2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29). 3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14). 4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one...","summary_en":"ABIHAIL Name used for both men and women in the OT. 1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35). 2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29). 3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14). 4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11145,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Additions to Esther","title_en":"Additions to Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","summary_en":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","summary_en":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103553,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","summary_en":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131179,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:15","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:15<\/strong> <em>Hegai<\/em> apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good <em>advice<\/em><em>,<\/em> which she wisely <em>accepted<\/em> and followed.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","summary_en":"2:15 Hegai apparently knew the king’s preferences, so he was able to give Esther good advice, which she wisely accepted and followed.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":5973,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ancient and Modern Calendars","title_en":"Ancient and Modern Calendars","content_ro":"<h3>CALENDARS, Ancient and Modern<\/h3>\n<p>Systematic arrangements showing the beginning and length of each year and its division into days, weeks, and months. The modern calendar is usually taken for granted. But without a calendar it would be extremely difficult to establish a uniform chronology (that is, a system for arranging events in the time sequence in which they actually happened). Also, accurate prediction of the coming and going of seasons would be impossible.<\/p>\n<p>Before the calendar took on its modern format, it had to progress through a number of developmental stages.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Days and Their Divisions<\/p>\n<p>• Astronomy and the Calendar<\/p>\n<p>• Jewish Calendar<\/p>\n<p>• Jewish Festivals<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DaysandTheirDivisions\">Days and Their Divisions<\/p>\n<p>The earliest attempt to mark off time was probably the simple counting of days, followed by the subdivision of each day into what eventually became 24 equal parts called hours. Since the Sumerians seem to have originated the measurement of time by minutes, hours, and days, they obviously also knew the narrower meaning of “day,” which for them designated a 12-hour period.<\/p>\n<p>Measurement of time in the days of King Ahaz is illustrated by reference to a sundial (2 Kgs 20:9; Is 38:8). The precise measurement of hours, however, must have been a relatively late practice. Early Europeans, like the ancient Egyptians, placed the beginning of the day at midnight, further dividing the period into two 12-hour segments. In the second century <span>BC<\/span> the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy and his disciples devised an astronomically convenient method of calculating each day from high noon, when the sun reached its apex in the heavens. The Roman day began at sunrise, with the second part of the day commencing at sunset.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AstronomyandtheCalendar\">Astronomy and the Calendar<\/p>\n<p>Ancient peoples constructed their calendars on the basis of their observations of “cycles” of the sun and moon. The solar year is the period of time in which the earth accomplishes a complete revolution in its orbit around the sun.<\/p>\n<p>The life of ancient peoples was closely tied to the changes in temperature and in the relative length of days and nights characteristic of the four seasons. Seasonal changes result from the fact that while the earth is orbiting the sun, it is also rotating on its own axis, tipped at an angle to the plane of its path around the sun. The longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere is called the summer solstice (about June 21 on the modern calendar). At the winter solstice (December 21 or 22) the noonday sun appears lowest (farthest south) and the days are shortest. (In the southern hemisphere summer and winter are reversed by the effect of the earth’s tilt.) Halfway between, at the vernal (spring) equinox about March 21, and the autumnal (fall) equinox about September 23, the sun is directly over the equator and there are as many hours of daylight as of darkness. The term “equinox” is from the Latin words for “equal night.” A solar year could be measured by ancient peoples as the period between two similar solstices or equinoxes.<\/p>\n<p>The solar calendar marks off days by observing the period between consecutive returns of the sun to a similar position above the earth, such as its rising, setting, or highest point at midday. A “day” thus represents one complete rotation of the earth on its own axis, now divided into 24 hours. Since that rotation is not directly related to the earth’s annual orbit around the sun, calendar problems arise because the true solar year does not equal a certain whole number of days but 365 days plus a fraction of a day.<\/p>\n<p>The most significant calendar problems arise when the sun’s motion is not the only factor taken into consideration in marking off a year. Considerable difficulties were encountered in ancient attempts to reconcile solar and lunar periods, especially when subdivisions of the year (months) were made to correspond to the more irregular phases of the moon. The fact that while the moon is orbiting the earth, the earth is orbiting the sun (and rotating at the same time) produces many complications.<\/p>\n<p>The lunar calendar measured time by lunations (a lunation is the interval of time, expressed in days, between two successive new moons). Each lunar month, beginning when the thin crescent of the new moon first becomes visible at dusk, averages just over 29½ days. The moon actually orbits the earth in about 27<span>1<\/span>\/<span>3<\/span> days. Because the earth is meanwhile moving around the sun, it takes the moon two extra days to come to the same position between the sun and earth and produce a “new moon.”<\/p>\n<p>A lunar year of 12 months was approximately 11 days shorter than the solar year, so additional days were inserted to make up for the difference. The practice of insertion, known as intercalation, was a device common to several lunar calendar systems. The ancient Chinese compensated by adding an intercalary month every 30 years to their calendar, which consisted of 12 months of 29 or 30 days each. The Muslim lunar calendar, still used throughout Islam, also recognized 30 years as a cycle. Beginning with the second year within each cycle, and at subsequent intervals of three years, a “leap year” (a year of abnormal length) is observed. In that framework a leap year comprises 355 days as opposed to the ordinary Muslim year of 354 days. Calculation of the ancient Hebrew year suffered the same problems as other lunar calendars.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishCalendar\">Jewish Calendar<\/p>\n<p>It is hard to imagine a people with lives more closely bound to and regulated by the calendar than the people of ancient Israel. The Jewish calendar is dated from what is supposed to have been the Creation: 3,760 years and three months before the Christian era. Accordingly, to find the current year in the Jewish calendar, one must add 3,759 to the date in the Gregorian calendar. The system, however, will not work to the exact month, since the Jewish year (running on the civil calendar) begins in autumn rather than in midwinter.<\/p>\n<h5>Months<\/h5>\n<p>Most of the 12 months of the postexilic calendar have names adapted from the Babylonians. The months do not correspond to but overlap the months of the Roman calendar.<\/p>\n<p>The names of over half the months are mentioned in the OT: Kislev (Neh 1:1; Zec 7:1; <span>rsv<\/span> “Chislev”), Tebeth (Est 2:16), Shebat (Zec 1:7), Adar (Est 3:7, 8:12), Nisan (Neh 2:1; Est 3:7), Sivan (Est 8:9), and Elul (Neh 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>Since the Jewish month invariably began with the new moon, at intervals of approximately 29½ days, the Jewish year ran 354 days. No exact information is available to explain how the Jews originally adjusted their inaccurate lunar calendar to synchronize with the actual solar year. Late in Israel’s history an extra month was inserted between Adar and Nisan. That month, sometimes called Veader (“second Adar”), was added seven times within a 19-year cycle (at which time Adar received an extra half day).<\/p>\n<p>The names for the Jewish months as now known come from the period following the return from Babylonia to Palestine. Before the Babylonian exile at least four other names were in use: Abib (Ex 13:4), Ziv (1 Kgs 6:1, 37), Ethanim (8:2), and Bul (6:38). After the Captivity, they were renamed Nisan, Iyyar, Tishri, and Heshvan (originally Marcheshvan), respectively. The preexilic names carried agricultural connotations. For example, Abib signified the month in which the heads of the grain became ripe; Ziv was the month for desert flowers to bloom. An agricultural orientation is apparent in what is evidently the oldest Hebrew calendar, found at Gezer (southeast of Tel Aviv) in 1908 and dating from the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Probably the work of a Jewish schoolboy, the calendar breaks down the year by agricultural activities such as sowing, reaping, pruning, and storage.<\/p>\n<p>Primarily, however, the months were religiously significant to the Jews and enabled them to commemorate the important events of their history. Each month’s beginning was considered holy. To ancient Israel, the moon became a spiritual symbol of the nation itself; the sun eventually became symbolic of the Messiah (Mal 4:2). Since the moon produces no light of its own, the symbolism is especially appropriate: Israel was supposed to reflect the Messiah’s light to the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish calendar remained unchanged during the period between the OT and NT (approximately 400 years) despite an attempt by Hellenistic rulers to introduce a modified lunar month system, presumably of Macedonian origin. According to that calendar, five days were added to the final month of the year, with each of the 12 months containing 30 days. Even then, it only approximated the solar year.<\/p>\n<h5>Reckoning of Dates<\/h5>\n<p>We know of no era in which the ancient Hebrews recorded dates by citing a month and day. Rather, dates were computed by reference to some significant event such as the accession year of the reigning king. In NT times the Jews continued the OT method of dating events by synchronizing them with events either in their religious calendar or within the secular sphere of the Roman world. Writers of the NT followed the same principle (Lk 1:5; Jn 12:1; Acts 18:12). Only as the calendar reforms of Julius Caesar became embedded in the culture did people change from that long-standing method to a more standardized system.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishFestivals\">Jewish Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In addition to keeping the Sabbath, Jews observe seven annual festivals.<\/p>\n<p>1. Passover (14th of Nisan) marks the deliverance from Egypt (the exodus). The first day of Nisan determines the date for Passover. Passover is observed for seven days and encompasses the Feast of Unleavened Bread, an event recalling Israel’s hasty preparation for the flight from Egypt (Ex 12:15). The festival for the firstfruits of the barley harvest immediately follows (Lv 23:10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. Pentecost is celebrated 50 days after Passover. A time of joyful celebration for the people, Pentecost is the Feast of Ingathering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest (Ex 34:22; Lv 23:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Next in order is New Year’s Day, the beginning of Tishri. The first of Tishri, according to the rabbis, was the day in which the Lord created the world. It is called Rosh Hashanah, “head of the year.”<\/li>\n<li>4. On the 10th of Tishri, Israel’s most solemn day, Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement), is observed. This holiest of days is known as “the Sabbath of Sabbaths,” and the complex ritual for its observance is set forth in the Bible (Lv 16).<\/li>\n<li>5. Succoth, the Feast of Tabernacles, occupies the 15th through the 22d of Tishri. A largely agricultural festival, it celebrates the ingathering of the autumn harvest. The apostle John referred to it simply as “the feast” (Jn 7:37). The Feast of Tabernacles, sometimes called the Feast of Booths (Shelters), is also a spiritual commemoration; it recalls God’s care over his people throughout Israel’s 40 years in the wilderness (Lv 23:39-43).<\/li>\n<li>6. Of later origin is the Festival of Hanukkah, the Feast of Dedication. It commemorates Judas Maccabeus’s decisive victory over Antiochus Epiphanes and the Syrians 150 years before Christ. Since Malachi, the last of the OT prophets, had passed from the scene long before that event, tradition alone governs the manner in which the occasion is celebrated. On the 25th of Kislev and the following seven days, joyous activities mark the Jewish calendar.<\/li>\n<li>7. Concluding the sacred festivals for the year is Purim, which falls on the 14th and 15th of Adar. The feast, which finds its origin in ancient Persia, commemorates the deliverance brought through Mordecai and Esther when they frustrated Haman’s plot to destroy the Jews (Est 9).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>As ancient sundials and modern clocks mark the passage of minutes and hours, a calendar marks the passage of days, weeks, months, years, and even centuries. A uniform, understandable way of measuring the longer units of time aids secular enterprises such as agriculture, business, and government; it is essential to historians and brings unity to the celebration of religious rites. Development of the modern (Gregorian) calendar represents an interaction between the science of astronomy and much historical and religious tradition. The religious significance of the calendar for Christians stems partly from the biblical contrast between God’s timelessness and human mortality (Ps 90). The psalmist asked God to “teach us to number our days that we may get a heart of wisdom” (Ps 90:12, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Astrology; Astronomy; Day; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Jubilee Year; Moon; Night; Sun.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CALENDARS, Ancient and Modern<\/h3>\n<p>Systematic arrangements showing the beginning and length of each year and its division into days, weeks, and months. The modern calendar is usually taken for granted. But without a calendar it would be extremely difficult to establish a uniform chronology (that is, a system for arranging events in the time sequence in which they actually happened). Also, accurate prediction of the coming and going of seasons would be impossible.<\/p>\n<p>Before the calendar took on its modern format, it had to progress through a number of developmental stages.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Days and Their Divisions<\/p>\n<p>• Astronomy and the Calendar<\/p>\n<p>• Jewish Calendar<\/p>\n<p>• Jewish Festivals<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DaysandTheirDivisions\">Days and Their Divisions<\/p>\n<p>The earliest attempt to mark off time was probably the simple counting of days, followed by the subdivision of each day into what eventually became 24 equal parts called hours. Since the Sumerians seem to have originated the measurement of time by minutes, hours, and days, they obviously also knew the narrower meaning of “day,” which for them designated a 12-hour period.<\/p>\n<p>Measurement of time in the days of King Ahaz is illustrated by reference to a sundial (2 Kgs 20:9; Is 38:8). The precise measurement of hours, however, must have been a relatively late practice. Early Europeans, like the ancient Egyptians, placed the beginning of the day at midnight, further dividing the period into two 12-hour segments. In the second century <span>BC<\/span> the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy and his disciples devised an astronomically convenient method of calculating each day from high noon, when the sun reached its apex in the heavens. The Roman day began at sunrise, with the second part of the day commencing at sunset.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AstronomyandtheCalendar\">Astronomy and the Calendar<\/p>\n<p>Ancient peoples constructed their calendars on the basis of their observations of “cycles” of the sun and moon. The solar year is the period of time in which the earth accomplishes a complete revolution in its orbit around the sun.<\/p>\n<p>The life of ancient peoples was closely tied to the changes in temperature and in the relative length of days and nights characteristic of the four seasons. Seasonal changes result from the fact that while the earth is orbiting the sun, it is also rotating on its own axis, tipped at an angle to the plane of its path around the sun. The longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere is called the summer solstice (about June 21 on the modern calendar). At the winter solstice (December 21 or 22) the noonday sun appears lowest (farthest south) and the days are shortest. (In the southern hemisphere summer and winter are reversed by the effect of the earth’s tilt.) Halfway between, at the vernal (spring) equinox about March 21, and the autumnal (fall) equinox about September 23, the sun is directly over the equator and there are as many hours of daylight as of darkness. The term “equinox” is from the Latin words for “equal night.” A solar year could be measured by ancient peoples as the period between two similar solstices or equinoxes.<\/p>\n<p>The solar calendar marks off days by observing the period between consecutive returns of the sun to a similar position above the earth, such as its rising, setting, or highest point at midday. A “day” thus represents one complete rotation of the earth on its own axis, now divided into 24 hours. Since that rotation is not directly related to the earth’s annual orbit around the sun, calendar problems arise because the true solar year does not equal a certain whole number of days but 365 days plus a fraction of a day.<\/p>\n<p>The most significant calendar problems arise when the sun’s motion is not the only factor taken into consideration in marking off a year. Considerable difficulties were encountered in ancient attempts to reconcile solar and lunar periods, especially when subdivisions of the year (months) were made to correspond to the more irregular phases of the moon. The fact that while the moon is orbiting the earth, the earth is orbiting the sun (and rotating at the same time) produces many complications.<\/p>\n<p>The lunar calendar measured time by lunations (a lunation is the interval of time, expressed in days, between two successive new moons). Each lunar month, beginning when the thin crescent of the new moon first becomes visible at dusk, averages just over 29½ days. The moon actually orbits the earth in about 27<span>1<\/span>\/<span>3<\/span> days. Because the earth is meanwhile moving around the sun, it takes the moon two extra days to come to the same position between the sun and earth and produce a “new moon.”<\/p>\n<p>A lunar year of 12 months was approximately 11 days shorter than the solar year, so additional days were inserted to make up for the difference. The practice of insertion, known as intercalation, was a device common to several lunar calendar systems. The ancient Chinese compensated by adding an intercalary month every 30 years to their calendar, which consisted of 12 months of 29 or 30 days each. The Muslim lunar calendar, still used throughout Islam, also recognized 30 years as a cycle. Beginning with the second year within each cycle, and at subsequent intervals of three years, a “leap year” (a year of abnormal length) is observed. In that framework a leap year comprises 355 days as opposed to the ordinary Muslim year of 354 days. Calculation of the ancient Hebrew year suffered the same problems as other lunar calendars.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishCalendar\">Jewish Calendar<\/p>\n<p>It is hard to imagine a people with lives more closely bound to and regulated by the calendar than the people of ancient Israel. The Jewish calendar is dated from what is supposed to have been the Creation: 3,760 years and three months before the Christian era. Accordingly, to find the current year in the Jewish calendar, one must add 3,759 to the date in the Gregorian calendar. The system, however, will not work to the exact month, since the Jewish year (running on the civil calendar) begins in autumn rather than in midwinter.<\/p>\n<h5>Months<\/h5>\n<p>Most of the 12 months of the postexilic calendar have names adapted from the Babylonians. The months do not correspond to but overlap the months of the Roman calendar.<\/p>\n<p>The names of over half the months are mentioned in the OT: Kislev (Neh 1:1; Zec 7:1; <span>rsv<\/span> “Chislev”), Tebeth (Est 2:16), Shebat (Zec 1:7), Adar (Est 3:7, 8:12), Nisan (Neh 2:1; Est 3:7), Sivan (Est 8:9), and Elul (Neh 6:15).<\/p>\n<p>Since the Jewish month invariably began with the new moon, at intervals of approximately 29½ days, the Jewish year ran 354 days. No exact information is available to explain how the Jews originally adjusted their inaccurate lunar calendar to synchronize with the actual solar year. Late in Israel’s history an extra month was inserted between Adar and Nisan. That month, sometimes called Veader (“second Adar”), was added seven times within a 19-year cycle (at which time Adar received an extra half day).<\/p>\n<p>The names for the Jewish months as now known come from the period following the return from Babylonia to Palestine. Before the Babylonian exile at least four other names were in use: Abib (Ex 13:4), Ziv (1 Kgs 6:1, 37), Ethanim (8:2), and Bul (6:38). After the Captivity, they were renamed Nisan, Iyyar, Tishri, and Heshvan (originally Marcheshvan), respectively. The preexilic names carried agricultural connotations. For example, Abib signified the month in which the heads of the grain became ripe; Ziv was the month for desert flowers to bloom. An agricultural orientation is apparent in what is evidently the oldest Hebrew calendar, found at Gezer (southeast of Tel Aviv) in 1908 and dating from the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Probably the work of a Jewish schoolboy, the calendar breaks down the year by agricultural activities such as sowing, reaping, pruning, and storage.<\/p>\n<p>Primarily, however, the months were religiously significant to the Jews and enabled them to commemorate the important events of their history. Each month’s beginning was considered holy. To ancient Israel, the moon became a spiritual symbol of the nation itself; the sun eventually became symbolic of the Messiah (Mal 4:2). Since the moon produces no light of its own, the symbolism is especially appropriate: Israel was supposed to reflect the Messiah’s light to the world.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewish calendar remained unchanged during the period between the OT and NT (approximately 400 years) despite an attempt by Hellenistic rulers to introduce a modified lunar month system, presumably of Macedonian origin. According to that calendar, five days were added to the final month of the year, with each of the 12 months containing 30 days. Even then, it only approximated the solar year.<\/p>\n<h5>Reckoning of Dates<\/h5>\n<p>We know of no era in which the ancient Hebrews recorded dates by citing a month and day. Rather, dates were computed by reference to some significant event such as the accession year of the reigning king. In NT times the Jews continued the OT method of dating events by synchronizing them with events either in their religious calendar or within the secular sphere of the Roman world. Writers of the NT followed the same principle (Lk 1:5; Jn 12:1; Acts 18:12). Only as the calendar reforms of Julius Caesar became embedded in the culture did people change from that long-standing method to a more standardized system.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JewishFestivals\">Jewish Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In addition to keeping the Sabbath, Jews observe seven annual festivals.<\/p>\n<p>1. Passover (14th of Nisan) marks the deliverance from Egypt (the exodus). The first day of Nisan determines the date for Passover. Passover is observed for seven days and encompasses the Feast of Unleavened Bread, an event recalling Israel’s hasty preparation for the flight from Egypt (Ex 12:15). The festival for the firstfruits of the barley harvest immediately follows (Lv 23:10, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<li>2. Pentecost is celebrated 50 days after Passover. A time of joyful celebration for the people, Pentecost is the Feast of Ingathering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest (Ex 34:22; Lv 23:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Next in order is New Year’s Day, the beginning of Tishri. The first of Tishri, according to the rabbis, was the day in which the Lord created the world. It is called Rosh Hashanah, “head of the year.”<\/li>\n<li>4. On the 10th of Tishri, Israel’s most solemn day, Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement), is observed. This holiest of days is known as “the Sabbath of Sabbaths,” and the complex ritual for its observance is set forth in the Bible (Lv 16).<\/li>\n<li>5. Succoth, the Feast of Tabernacles, occupies the 15th through the 22d of Tishri. A largely agricultural festival, it celebrates the ingathering of the autumn harvest. The apostle John referred to it simply as “the feast” (Jn 7:37). The Feast of Tabernacles, sometimes called the Feast of Booths (Shelters), is also a spiritual commemoration; it recalls God’s care over his people throughout Israel’s 40 years in the wilderness (Lv 23:39-43).<\/li>\n<li>6. Of later origin is the Festival of Hanukkah, the Feast of Dedication. It commemorates Judas Maccabeus’s decisive victory over Antiochus Epiphanes and the Syrians 150 years before Christ. Since Malachi, the last of the OT prophets, had passed from the scene long before that event, tradition alone governs the manner in which the occasion is celebrated. On the 25th of Kislev and the following seven days, joyous activities mark the Jewish calendar.<\/li>\n<li>7. Concluding the sacred festivals for the year is Purim, which falls on the 14th and 15th of Adar. The feast, which finds its origin in ancient Persia, commemorates the deliverance brought through Mordecai and Esther when they frustrated Haman’s plot to destroy the Jews (Est 9).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>As ancient sundials and modern clocks mark the passage of minutes and hours, a calendar marks the passage of days, weeks, months, years, and even centuries. A uniform, understandable way of measuring the longer units of time aids secular enterprises such as agriculture, business, and government; it is essential to historians and brings unity to the celebration of religious rites. Development of the modern (Gregorian) calendar represents an interaction between the science of astronomy and much historical and religious tradition. The religious significance of the calendar for Christians stems partly from the biblical contrast between God’s timelessness and human mortality (Ps 90). The psalmist asked God to “teach us to number our days that we may get a heart of wisdom” (Ps 90:12, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Astrology; Astronomy; Day; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Jubilee Year; Moon; Night; Sun.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CALENDARS, Ancient and Modern Systematic arrangements showing the beginning and length of each year and its division into days, weeks, and months. The modern calendar is usually taken for granted. But without a calendar it would be extremely difficult to establish a uniform chronology (that is, a system for arranging events in the time sequence in which they actually happened). Also, accurate prediction of the coming and going of seasons would be impossible. Before the calendar took on its mo...","summary_en":"CALENDARS, Ancient and Modern Systematic arrangements showing the beginning and length of each year and its division into days, weeks, and months. The modern calendar is usually taken for granted. But without a calendar it would be extremely difficult to establish a uniform chronology (that is, a system for arranging events in the time sequence in which they actually happened). Also, accurate prediction of the coming and going of seasons would be impossible. Before the calendar took on its mo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11147,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Additions to Esther","title_en":"Additions to Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21802,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36879,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tebeth*","title_en":"Tebeth*","content_ro":"<h3>TEBETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Month in the Hebrew calendar corresponding to about mid-December to mid-January (Est 2:16; see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEBETH*<\/h3>\n<p>Month in the Hebrew calendar corresponding to about mid-December to mid-January (Est 2:16; see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). <em>See<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEBETH* Month in the Hebrew calendar corresponding to about mid-December to mid-January (Est 2:16; see nlt mg). See Calendars, Ancient and Modern.","summary_en":"TEBETH* Month in the Hebrew calendar corresponding to about mid-December to mid-January (Est 2:16; see nlt mg). See Calendars, Ancient and Modern.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39820,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"The Hebrew Calendar","title_en":"The Hebrew Calendar","content_ro":"<h3>The Hebrew Calendar<\/h3>\n<p>A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April.<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Month<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Today’s Calendar<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Bible Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Israel’s Holidays<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 1 Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March–April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Passover (Leviticus 23:5)<\/p><p>Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)<\/p><p>Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 2 Iyyar (Ziv)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>April–May<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:1, 37<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 3 Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May–June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 8:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Weeks or Harvest) (Leviticus 23:16)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 4 Tammuz<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>June–July<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 5 Ab<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>July–August<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 6 Elul<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>August–September<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 6:15<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 7 Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September–October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 8:2<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Trumpets (New Year’s Day, Rosh Hashanah) (Leviticus 23:24; Numbers 29:1)<\/p><p>Day of Atonement (Leviticus 23:27)<\/p><p>Tabernacles (Shelters, Booths) (Leviticus 23:34)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 8 Marcheshvan (Bul)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>October–November<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:38<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 9 Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November–December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Dedication (Hanukkah) (John 10:22)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>10 Tebeth<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>December–January<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 2:16<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>11 Shebat<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>January–February<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Zechariah 1:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>12 Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February–March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 3:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Purim (Esther 9:24-32)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<h3>The Hebrew Calendar<\/h3>\n<p>A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April.<\/p>\n<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Month<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Today’s Calendar<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Bible Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Israel’s Holidays<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 1 Nisan (Abib)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>March–April<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Passover (Leviticus 23:5)<\/p><p>Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)<\/p><p>Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 2 Iyyar (Ziv)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>April–May<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:1, 37<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 3 Sivan<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>May–June<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 8:9<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Pentecost (Weeks or Harvest) (Leviticus 23:16)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 4 Tammuz<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>June–July<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 5 Ab<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>July–August<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 6 Elul<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>August–September<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 6:15<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 7 Tishri (Ethanim)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>September–October<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 8:2<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Trumpets (New Year’s Day, Rosh Hashanah) (Leviticus 23:24; Numbers 29:1)<\/p><p>Day of Atonement (Leviticus 23:27)<\/p><p>Tabernacles (Shelters, Booths) (Leviticus 23:34)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 8 Marcheshvan (Bul)<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>October–November<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Kings 6:38<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p> 9 Kislev<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>November–December<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Nehemiah 1:1<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Dedication (Hanukkah) (John 10:22)<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>10 Tebeth<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>December–January<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 2:16<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>11 Shebat<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>January–February<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Zechariah 1:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p class=\"td\"\/><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>12 Adar<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>February–March<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Esther 3:7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>Purim (Esther 9:24-32)<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"The Hebrew Calendar A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April. Month Today’s Calendar Bible Reference Israel’s Holidays 1 Nisan (Abib) March–April Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1 Passover (Leviticus 23:5)Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10) 2 Iyyar (Ziv) April–May 1 Kings 6:1, 37 Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11) 3 Sivan May–June Esther 8:9 Pentecos...","summary_en":"The Hebrew Calendar A Hebrew month began in the middle of a month on our calendar today. Crops were planted in November and December and harvested in March and April. Month Today’s Calendar Bible Reference Israel’s Holidays 1 Nisan (Abib) March–April Exodus 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deuteronomy 16:1 Passover (Leviticus 23:5)Unleavened Bread (Leviticus 23:6)Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:10) 2 Iyyar (Ziv) April–May 1 Kings 6:1, 37 Second Passover (Numbers 9:10, 11) 3 Sivan May–June Esther 8:9 Pentecos...","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":48302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:17","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","summary_en":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75928,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:17","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","summary_en":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103554,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:17","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","summary_en":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131180,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:17","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:17<\/strong> <em>he set the royal crown on her head:<\/em> Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","summary_en":"2:17 he set the royal crown on her head: Now Esther had access to the king’s heart as his favored wife. She was now in a place where God could use her to impact the thoughts and actions of the king.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":3652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Banquet","title_en":"Banquet","content_ro":"<h3>BANQUET<\/h3>\n<p>Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at harvest (Jgs 9:27; Ru 3:1-3); at the shearing of sheep (1 Sm 25:11; 2 Sm 13:23-29); at the arrival of guests (Gn 19:3); at the weaning of a child (21:8); at coronations (1 Kgs 1:9, 19-25); on various state occasions (Est 1:3-9; 2:18; 5:4-8); and for many other reasons.<\/p>\n<p>Many customs associated with banquets in the ancient Near East are portrayed in the Bible and in extrabiblical literature; wall reliefs and carvings from some excavations also depict banquet scenes. The sequence of banquet preparation in Proverbs 9:2-5, Matthew 22:1-14, and Luke 14:15-24 is also known from the legend of King Keret in Ugaritic literature: (1) preparation of the foods, (2) sending messengers with the invitation and announcement that all is ready, and (3) the presentation of food and wine in order. The prophet Amos portrays a lavish feast and shows the main eating customs (Am 6:4-6). Meals were ordinarily taken while reclining on a couch before a table (Est 1:6; Ez 23:41; Am 6:4; Mt 9:10; Lk 7:49; 14:10, 15).<\/p>\n<p>Banquet imagery is prominent in both Testaments with reference to the kingdom of God. Isaiah foresaw the judgment of the nations and the deliverance of Israel followed by the Lord’s reign over his people (Is 24:23); inauguration of that reign is accompanied by a huge banquet to which all peoples are invited (Is 25:6-8; cf. Lk 13:29). Meals shared following the sacrifice of animals in the OT prefigure that great feast when there will be no more death, tears, or reproach for the people of God (Is 25:7; cf. Rv 21:4). The banquet of the new covenant likewise directs attention to the future, when the redeemed will drink fine wine (Is 25:6) with Christ in the kingdom of God (Lk 22:14-20). By participating in the Lord’s Supper (Communion), all Christians anticipate that great feast.<\/p>\n<p>That future, final banquet in the kingdom of God is also pictured specifically as a wedding feast; all is in readiness, the invitation is issued to many, but few are chosen (Mt 22:1-14). The church looks forward to the marriage feast of the Lamb (Rv 19:7-9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANQUET<\/h3>\n<p>Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at harvest (Jgs 9:27; Ru 3:1-3); at the shearing of sheep (1 Sm 25:11; 2 Sm 13:23-29); at the arrival of guests (Gn 19:3); at the weaning of a child (21:8); at coronations (1 Kgs 1:9, 19-25); on various state occasions (Est 1:3-9; 2:18; 5:4-8); and for many other reasons.<\/p>\n<p>Many customs associated with banquets in the ancient Near East are portrayed in the Bible and in extrabiblical literature; wall reliefs and carvings from some excavations also depict banquet scenes. The sequence of banquet preparation in Proverbs 9:2-5, Matthew 22:1-14, and Luke 14:15-24 is also known from the legend of King Keret in Ugaritic literature: (1) preparation of the foods, (2) sending messengers with the invitation and announcement that all is ready, and (3) the presentation of food and wine in order. The prophet Amos portrays a lavish feast and shows the main eating customs (Am 6:4-6). Meals were ordinarily taken while reclining on a couch before a table (Est 1:6; Ez 23:41; Am 6:4; Mt 9:10; Lk 7:49; 14:10, 15).<\/p>\n<p>Banquet imagery is prominent in both Testaments with reference to the kingdom of God. Isaiah foresaw the judgment of the nations and the deliverance of Israel followed by the Lord’s reign over his people (Is 24:23); inauguration of that reign is accompanied by a huge banquet to which all peoples are invited (Is 25:6-8; cf. Lk 13:29). Meals shared following the sacrifice of animals in the OT prefigure that great feast when there will be no more death, tears, or reproach for the people of God (Is 25:7; cf. Rv 21:4). The banquet of the new covenant likewise directs attention to the future, when the redeemed will drink fine wine (Is 25:6) with Christ in the kingdom of God (Lk 22:14-20). By participating in the Lord’s Supper (Communion), all Christians anticipate that great feast.<\/p>\n<p>That future, final banquet in the kingdom of God is also pictured specifically as a wedding feast; all is in readiness, the invitation is issued to many, but few are chosen (Mt 22:1-14). The church looks forward to the marriage feast of the Lamb (Rv 19:7-9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANQUET Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at har...","summary_en":"BANQUET Lavish ceremonial meal, usually held in honor of some notable event or person; also a symbol of the feast to be given by Christ in the kingdom of God. Banqueting and feasting were major parts of the social and religious life of biblical times. In addition to the religious feasts prescribed by Mosaic law, banquets and feasts were celebrated on nearly any occasion of joy or solemnity: at the ratification of covenants (Gn 26:30; 31:54; Ex 24:11); at weddings (Gn 29:22; Jgs 14:10); at har...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12124,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:18","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","summary_en":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:18","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","summary_en":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103555,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:18","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","summary_en":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131181,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:18","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:18<\/strong> <em>he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor:<\/em> Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • <em>declaring a public holiday:<\/em> The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hanakhah<\/span>) is related to the verb that means “rest” (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nukh<\/span>). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","summary_en":"2:18 he gave a great banquet in Esther’s honor: Now the king honored his wife instead of putting her on display (cp. 1:11). • declaring a public holiday: The Hebrew word translated “public holiday” (hanakhah) is related to the verb that means “rest” (nukh). The book as a whole describes how the Jewish people obtained rest from the threats of their enemies (see 9:16-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":11177,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:19","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","summary_en":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:19","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","summary_en":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103556,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:19","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","summary_en":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131182,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:19","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:19<\/strong> <em>Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem:<\/em> Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • <em>Mordecai had become a palace official<\/em> (literally <em>Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king<\/em>): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","summary_en":"2:19 Even after all the young women had been transferred to the second harem: Since the queen had been chosen, those in waiting would join the other concubines. • Mordecai had become a palace official (literally Mordecai was sitting in the gate of the king): Court cases were decided and much official business was conducted at the gate. There Mordecai was able to hear about the plot against the king (2:21-23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":48305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:20","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","summary_en":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:20","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","summary_en":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103557,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:20","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","summary_en":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131183,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:20","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:20<\/strong> <em>keep her family background and nationality a secret:<\/em> That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, <em>she was still following Mordecai’s directions<\/em>. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","summary_en":"2:20 keep her family background and nationality a secret: That this is mentioned twice (see also 2:10) indicates how important it was for the rest of the story. • With humility, she was still following Mordecai’s directions. She did not become conceited and forget her people or the family that raised her.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":41812,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41816,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Xerxes I","title_en":"Xerxes I","content_ro":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","summary_en":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69438,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69442,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Xerxes I","title_en":"Xerxes I","content_ro":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","summary_en":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97064,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97068,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Xerxes I","title_en":"Xerxes I","content_ro":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","summary_en":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124690,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124694,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Xerxes I","title_en":"Xerxes I","content_ro":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Xerxes I<\/h3>\n<p>Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 <span>BC<\/span>, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability.<\/p>\n<p>Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputation for despotism.<\/p>\n<p>In the third year of his reign, Xerxes convened an assembly of his leaders to plan an invasion of Greece. (The book of Esther begins with a banquet that probably reflects that situation.) In 480 <span>BC<\/span> the legendary but ill-fated campaign to conquer Greece began. Xerxes’ tyrannical cruelty is exemplified by two accounts that Herodotus records from this campaign. When he and his armies reached the Hellespont (the waterway connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), his engineers built a bridge so his armies could cross, but a storm destroyed the bridge. Xerxes responded by beheading the engineers and whipping the water before building a stronger bridge. Later in the campaign, after he had burned Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis. Xerxes responded by executing the admiral of the Phoenician fleet, and the Phoenicians and Egyptians deserted him. Only the Persian fleet remained, and it was defeated by the Greeks in 479 <span>BC<\/span>. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Afterward, Xerxes turned his attention to matters at home, such as massive building projects at Susa and Persepolis, and the events recorded in Esther.<\/p>\n<p>Xerxes had reason to worry that assassins would try to kill him. According to Esther 2:21-23, Mordecai thwarted an assassination plot, which later led to Xerxes publicly honoring Mordecai. After Xerxes was again defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 <span>BC<\/span> and stripped of territory, another assassination plot by his court officials succeeded, and his reign ended ignominiously in 465 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ezra 4:6; Esth 1:1-22<\/p>","summary_ro":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","summary_en":"Xerxes I Xerxes I, who reigned over the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 BC, was the son and successor of Darius I (Hystaspes). He inherited a vast empire from his father and his maternal grandfather (Cyrus II), but he was unable to govern Persia effectively due to his cruelty and instability. Early in Xerxes’ reign, Egypt and Babylon revolted against Persian rule. Xerxes crushed the revolts and kept the tax revenues flowing, but his brutal treatment of his subjects began cementing his reputati...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4912,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bigtha","title_en":"Bigtha","content_ro":"<h3>BIGTHA<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia. He and six others were in charge of the royal household (Est 1:10). He is perhaps identifiable with Bigthana in Esther 2:21; 6:2.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bigthan, Bigthana.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIGTHA<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia. He and six others were in charge of the royal household (Est 1:10). He is perhaps identifiable with Bigthana in Esther 2:21; 6:2.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bigthan, Bigthana.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIGTHA Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia. He and six others were in charge of the royal household (Est 1:10). He is perhaps identifiable with Bigthana in Esther 2:21; 6:2. See also Bigthan, Bigthana.","summary_en":"BIGTHA Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia. He and six others were in charge of the royal household (Est 1:10). He is perhaps identifiable with Bigthana in Esther 2:21; 6:2. See also Bigthan, Bigthana.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4914,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bigthan*, Bigthana","title_en":"Bigthan*, Bigthana","content_ro":"<h3>BIGTHAN*, BIGTHANA<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia as a palace guard. He and a fellow guard named Teresh planned an assassination attempt on the king’s life. When their plot was overheard by Queen Esther’s uncle Mordecai, the two conspirators were executed (Est 2:21-23; 6:2, “Bigthana”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bigtha.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIGTHAN*, BIGTHANA<\/h3>\n<p>Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia as a palace guard. He and a fellow guard named Teresh planned an assassination attempt on the king’s life. When their plot was overheard by Queen Esther’s uncle Mordecai, the two conspirators were executed (Est 2:21-23; 6:2, “Bigthana”).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bigtha.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIGTHAN*, BIGTHANA Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia as a palace guard. He and a fellow guard named Teresh planned an assassination attempt on the king’s life. When their plot was overheard by Queen Esther’s uncle Mordecai, the two conspirators were executed (Est 2:21-23; 6:2, “Bigthana”). See also Bigtha.","summary_en":"BIGTHAN*, BIGTHANA Eunuch who served King Ahasuerus of Persia as a palace guard. He and a fellow guard named Teresh planned an assassination attempt on the king’s life. When their plot was overheard by Queen Esther’s uncle Mordecai, the two conspirators were executed (Est 2:21-23; 6:2, “Bigthana”). See also Bigtha.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11128,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Esther (Person)","title_en":"Esther (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government official and covert leader of the Jewish community (see Est 3:5-6) in Susa, capital of the Persian kingdom. Esther became queen after King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) became displeased with Queen Vashti when she refused to obey his command to attend a banquet (1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (Est 2:21-23). The favor she won in the king’s eyes enabled her to deliver her family and her people from a massacre by Haman, a high official to the king.<\/p>\n<p>The Feast of Purim was instituted to celebrate God’s deliverance of his people through Esther and Mordecai. This festival is still observed annually by Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government official and covert leader of the Jewish community (see Est 3:5-6) in Susa, capital of the Persian kingdom. Esther became queen after King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) became displeased with Queen Vashti when she refused to obey his command to attend a banquet (1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (Est 2:21-23). The favor she won in the king’s eyes enabled her to deliver her family and her people from a massacre by Haman, a high official to the king.<\/p>\n<p>The Feast of Purim was instituted to celebrate God’s deliverance of his people through Esther and Mordecai. This festival is still observed annually by Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER (Person) One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7). Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government offi...","summary_en":"ESTHER (Person) One of two names borne by the Jewish queen of Persia. Hadassah (Hebrew “Myrtle”) apparently was her Jewish name (Est 2:7), and Esther (Persian “Star”) her name as queen of Persia. Some scholars speculate about a connection with the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, since exiled Jews were occasionally given pagan names (see Dn 1:7). Esther was an orphan from the tribe of Benjamin who lived with the Jewish exiles in Persia. She was reared by her cousin Mordecai, a minor government offi...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11149,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Additions to Esther","title_en":"Additions to Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37119,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Teresh","title_en":"Teresh","content_ro":"<h3>TERESH<\/h3>\n<p>One of two chamberlains who guarded the chambers of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes). When the two planned to kill the king, Mordecai discovered their plot and informed Esther, who in turn told the king. The guards were hanged (Est 2:21-23; 6:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TERESH<\/h3>\n<p>One of two chamberlains who guarded the chambers of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes). When the two planned to kill the king, Mordecai discovered their plot and informed Esther, who in turn told the king. The guards were hanged (Est 2:21-23; 6:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TERESH One of two chamberlains who guarded the chambers of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes). When the two planned to kill the king, Mordecai discovered their plot and informed Esther, who in turn told the king. The guards were hanged (Est 2:21-23; 6:2).","summary_en":"TERESH One of two chamberlains who guarded the chambers of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes). When the two planned to kill the king, Mordecai discovered their plot and informed Esther, who in turn told the king. The guards were hanged (Est 2:21-23; 6:2).","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","summary_en":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","summary_en":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103558,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","summary_en":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131184,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:21","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:21<\/strong> <em>Bigthana<\/em> might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and <em>Teresh<\/em> guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","summary_en":"2:21 Bigthana might be the Bigtha of 1:10, one of the king’s seven eunuchs. He and Teresh guarded the king’s bedroom, so it would not have been hard for them to carry out their plot if they hadn’t been discovered.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":48307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:22","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","summary_en":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:22","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","summary_en":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103559,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:22","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","summary_en":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131185,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:22","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:22<\/strong> <em>gave the information to Queen Esther:<\/em> The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she <em>gave Mordecai credit for the report<\/em><em>,<\/em> an important point later in the story (6:1-3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","summary_en":"2:22 gave the information to Queen Esther: The quickest, safest way for the information to get to the king was through the queen. • Although Esther could have promoted herself by taking credit for this information, she gave Mordecai credit for the report, an important point later in the story (6:1-3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":17270,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Impalement","title_en":"Impalement","content_ro":"<h3>IMPALEMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Driving of a pointed stake into a human body. It was apparently practiced in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and possibly also in Israel. There are, however, many problems in understanding the exact nature of impalement and what it means in individual OT passages.<\/p>\n<p>It is not always clear from documents written in Greek whether impalement or crucifixion is being described, since the same Greek word could refer to either procedure. (In crucifixion the body is fastened to a stake rather than being punctured by it.) Nor is it always clear whether the impalement is done to a living body or to a corpse. Probably both types of impalement were employed—the former as a method of execution, the latter as a means of exposing the corpse to the elements, beasts, and general disgrace. Furthermore, it is not clear to what extent “hanging” in the OT refers to impalement. Perhaps the fact that it is typically used with the preposition “on” (rather than “from”) indicates that impalement of some kind is intended.<\/p>\n<p>Some light is shed on the nature of impalement through Mesopotamian sources, where it was apparently a means of execution, in one case for a woman who had caused her husband’s death because of another man (<em>Code of Hammurabi<\/em> 153), in another for a woman performing an abortion on herself (<em>Middle Assyrian Laws<\/em> 53). The latter law makes it clear that the woman should be impaled whether or not she lived through the abortion. The claim of Assyrian kings to have hung captives of war on stakes correlates with the portrayal in Assyrian art of battle scenes where impaled bodies can be seen. The stake could be pushed up into the chest, with the body resting facedown, or between the legs, with the body upright.<\/p>\n<p>Darius’s provision in Ezra 6:11 for the punishment of violators of his decree that the temple in Jerusalem be rebuilt may refer to impalement. If the expression “hang on a tree [stake]” (Gn 40:19; Dt 21:22; Jos 8:29; 10:26; Est 2:23) refers to impalement, at least sometimes it is clear that it was a corpse being impaled (Jos 10:26). This interpretation also applies to Deuteronomy 21:22, in which the victim is first put to death and then “hung.” The point of similarity to the crucifixion of Christ (Gal 3:13) is the disgrace involved and not the precise form of treatment. Other possible examples of impalement are found in 2 Samuel 4:12 and 21:6-13.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IMPALEMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Driving of a pointed stake into a human body. It was apparently practiced in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and possibly also in Israel. There are, however, many problems in understanding the exact nature of impalement and what it means in individual OT passages.<\/p>\n<p>It is not always clear from documents written in Greek whether impalement or crucifixion is being described, since the same Greek word could refer to either procedure. (In crucifixion the body is fastened to a stake rather than being punctured by it.) Nor is it always clear whether the impalement is done to a living body or to a corpse. Probably both types of impalement were employed—the former as a method of execution, the latter as a means of exposing the corpse to the elements, beasts, and general disgrace. Furthermore, it is not clear to what extent “hanging” in the OT refers to impalement. Perhaps the fact that it is typically used with the preposition “on” (rather than “from”) indicates that impalement of some kind is intended.<\/p>\n<p>Some light is shed on the nature of impalement through Mesopotamian sources, where it was apparently a means of execution, in one case for a woman who had caused her husband’s death because of another man (<em>Code of Hammurabi<\/em> 153), in another for a woman performing an abortion on herself (<em>Middle Assyrian Laws<\/em> 53). The latter law makes it clear that the woman should be impaled whether or not she lived through the abortion. The claim of Assyrian kings to have hung captives of war on stakes correlates with the portrayal in Assyrian art of battle scenes where impaled bodies can be seen. The stake could be pushed up into the chest, with the body resting facedown, or between the legs, with the body upright.<\/p>\n<p>Darius’s provision in Ezra 6:11 for the punishment of violators of his decree that the temple in Jerusalem be rebuilt may refer to impalement. If the expression “hang on a tree [stake]” (Gn 40:19; Dt 21:22; Jos 8:29; 10:26; Est 2:23) refers to impalement, at least sometimes it is clear that it was a corpse being impaled (Jos 10:26). This interpretation also applies to Deuteronomy 21:22, in which the victim is first put to death and then “hung.” The point of similarity to the crucifixion of Christ (Gal 3:13) is the disgrace involved and not the precise form of treatment. Other possible examples of impalement are found in 2 Samuel 4:12 and 21:6-13.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IMPALEMENT Driving of a pointed stake into a human body. It was apparently practiced in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and possibly also in Israel. There are, however, many problems in understanding the exact nature of impalement and what it means in individual OT passages. It is not always clear from documents written in Greek whether impalement or crucifixion is being described, since the same Greek word could refer to either procedure. (In crucifixion the body is fastened to a ...","summary_en":"IMPALEMENT Driving of a pointed stake into a human body. It was apparently practiced in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and possibly also in Israel. There are, however, many problems in understanding the exact nature of impalement and what it means in individual OT passages. It is not always clear from documents written in Greek whether impalement or crucifixion is being described, since the same Greek word could refer to either procedure. (In crucifixion the body is fastened to a ...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:23","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","summary_en":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:23","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","summary_en":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103560,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:23","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","summary_en":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131186,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 2:23","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 2:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>2:23<\/strong> <em>impaled on a sharpened pole<\/em> (literally <em>hanged on a tree,<\/em> or <em>hanged on wood<\/em>): This phrase has traditionally been translated <em>hanged on a gallows,<\/em> but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • <em>This was all recorded:<\/em> Mordecai was not rewarded until much later (6:1-14). • While various records of Xerxes’ reign have been found, the particular book mentioned here no longer exists.<\/p>","summary_ro":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","summary_en":"2:23 impaled on a sharpened pole (literally hanged on a tree, or hanged on wood): This phrase has traditionally been translated hanged on a gallows, but inscriptions from ancient Persia show that impalement was a standard form of execution. Xerxes’ father, Darius I, claimed to have impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he conquered Babylon. Sometimes criminals were executed first and then displayed on a stake, as with the execution of Haman’s sons (9:5-14). • This was all recorded: Mordecai was not ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Estera 2
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