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{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":41815,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69441,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":97067,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124693,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Esther","title_en":"Esther","content_ro":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Esther<\/h3>\n<p>Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 <span>BC<\/span>). She was a woman of the <em>Diaspora<\/em> (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable.<\/p>\n<p>Esther was an orphan and was raised by her cousin Mordecai, who became a minor official in the Persian government in Susa. She became queen after King Xerxes became displeased with Queen Vashti for refusing to attend a banquet when commanded to do so (Esth 1:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>After Esther’s coronation, she discreetly won Xerxes’ confidence by informing him of an assassination plot (2:21-23). This later enabled her to rescue her people from a massacre planned by Haman, a high official to the king. Through her wise advice and brave action, Esther exposed Haman, he was executed, and the Jewish people were rescued. The Jewish Festival of Purim was instituted to celebrate these events.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Esth 2:7-20; 4:4–5:8; 7:1–9:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","summary_en":"Esther Esther was queen of Persia during the reign of Xerxes I (486–465 BC). She was a woman of the Diaspora (“scattering”), descended from Jews who had been scattered among the nations at the time of the Exile. Her family had not returned to the land of Judah, as some Jews had (see Ezra 1–2), but had chosen to stay in the land of Persia, like many others. Noting how important her cousin Mordecai was in the Persian government makes us guess that her family had grown rich and comfortable. Esth...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11182,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":12126,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","title_en":"Feasts and Festivals of Israel","content_ro":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion.<\/p>\n\n<p>In contemporary usage “festival” usually refers to activities extending over a period of time, while “feast” indicates one part of the celebration, often a meal. However, in religious usage, both ancient and modern, the two words are used interchangeably. The ancient Hebrews employed the words <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mo’ed<\/span> (“seasons”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span> for their great public celebrations, while feasts of a more private nature were commonly described by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishteh<\/span><em>.<\/em> The majority of English translations of Scripture do not differentiate between these words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FeastsandTheirFunctions\">Feasts and Their Functions<\/p>\n<p>Each festival places great emphasis on community participation and on the continuity of social or religious tradition, especially where the celebrations are elements of a regular civil or religious calendar. Without community backing, even in a family celebration, no festival can be successful. When there is communal participation, a festival can reinforce the individual and community memory of specific occasions, and can perpetuate that store of recollection over years and generations. Such shared memory has a cohesive effect upon a cooperating community, large or small, and serves to establish the traditions by which the group lives. If the festival commemorates a particular event or celebrates some lofty ideal, that theme becomes more firmly embedded in the minds of the participants by being associated repeatedly with the rites and ceremonies performed. The feasts of the ancient Hebrews had this positive function. The great festivals of their religious calendar commemorated specific occasions when God had reached out in power to intervene for his people or had provided for them in their distress. By celebrating these feasts on a regular basis, the Hebrews continually affirmed that their God had directed their destiny. Their repeated rehearsal of God’s help and love for them reminded them that he was still able to sustain them. Especially in times of hardship, it pointed to the reality of God’s presence and activity among them. Faith sustained by this means furnished an invaluable spiritual dimension to the life of the nation and provided a sense of continuity under divine provision and guidance. Only when corrupt or pagan elements were introduced into festive occasions did this important ingredient of national life begin to lose its vitality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentFestivals\">Old Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<h5>General Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>These occasions were surprisingly numerous in Israel, considering the rather austere mode of life reflected in much of the OT. No doubt such celebrations offset or compensated for the hardships and insecurities of existence in the ancient Near East, and the Israelites made the most of every opportunity. A wedding was one of the most obvious occasions for celebration, and it is not surprising that a feast was prepared for the marriage of Rachel and Jacob (Gn 29:22) in which the whole neighborhood participated. Just how long this particular feast lasted is unknown, but some marriage festivals continued for a week, as in the case of the marriage between Samson and the woman of Timnah (Jgs 14:17). Wine that makes glad man’s heart (Ps 104:15) was consumed freely on such occasions.<\/p>\n<p>Birthdays were often observed in a festive spirit, especially where a royal person was concerned (Gn 40:20). Solomon’s dream was commemorated with a feast provided for his servants (1 Kgs 3:15), and when the temple was dedicated, the occasion was celebrated for a full week (8:65). Kings and queens held feasts periodically to mark certain occasions or to express goodwill (cf. Est 1:3; 2:18; 5:4, 14; 7:2, 7; Dn 5:1). Herdsmen traditionally made a feast for the shearing of the first sheep (Dt 18:4).<\/p>\n<h5>Preexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>In addition to the general festivals, which were frequently of a secular nature, communal feasts were prescribed for the Israelites that had a specifically spiritual significance. They were meant to emphasize the activity of God on behalf of his people and to remind them that continued divine blessing depended upon their obedience to his will. The catalog of festivals in Leviticus 23:2 began with an injunction to observe the Sabbath. The seventh day, in which God ceased from creating (Gn 2:3), was holy, though it is difficult to determine the extent to which it was kept until the time of Moses (Ex 20:8-11). From that time on, Sabbath observance stressed refraining from all work so as to commemorate properly God’s own rest from creative activity (31:17) and his deliverance of his people from bondage in Egypt (Dt 5:12-15). Sabbath celebration was the sign of a special relationship between God and the Israelites. During this 24-hour period, even trivial tasks like making a fire (Ex 35:3) or gathering wood (Nm 15:32-33) were prohibited on pain of death. Journeys of any distance also came under the Sabbath ban (Ex 16:29). Special offerings were part of the observance (Nm 28:9-10), and the bread of the Presence was replaced in the tabernacle (Lv 24:5-8). Despite the restrictions on activity, the Sabbath was meant to symbolize a time of happiness and security in the presence of God (cf. Is 58:13-14), since its observance would bring blessing to the individual and to the whole land.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the New Moon<\/h6>\n<p>The new moon was a monthly celebration based on the lunar calendar. It was especially appropriate for an agricultural people, since everyone could tell when the moon was new. Special offerings were prescribed for this festival, consisting of a burnt sacrifice, a grain offering, and a drink offering (Nm 28:11-15). In addition, a male goat was sacrificed to God as a sin offering, and trumpet blasts were sounded over the sacrificial offerings as a memorial before God (10:10). The sacrifices prescribed for the new moon festival were significantly greater than those required in Numbers 28:9-10 for the weekly Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>This lunar feast was popular throughout Israelite history. During the monarchy, the Levites were required to assist the Aaronic priests at the new moon festival, as well as on the Sabbath (1 Chr 23:29-31). The preexilic prophets may well have taken advantage of the large gatherings to give guidance to the people or proclaim prophetic oracles (cf. 2 Kgs 4:23), though to what extent this was done is uncertain. Not everyone found the period of rest and celebration valuable, however, and Amos (Am 8:5) complained about those avaricious Israelites who felt that such observances interfered with the business of making a living. The feast could not be observed when the Judeans were in exile in Babylonia (cf. Hos 2:11), but under Ezra and Nehemiah, its observance was restored (Neh 10:33). In Isaiah 66:22-23 it was related to Israel’s final destiny and was an accepted part of the ordinances for Ezekiel’s ideal temple (Ez 45:17).<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the festival was to enhance the unity of national life by reminding the Israelites that God’s covenant with their ancestors was permanent and still binding upon the nation. It also stressed the loving nature and providence of a God who could begin such a relationship and carry out his promises with complete faithfulness (cf. Ps 104:19).<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Trumpets<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the seventh new moon. This month, subsequently named Tishri, was especially holy, and for this reason was governed by certain regulations different from those of ordinary new moon festivals. The trumpets were blown on the first day (Lv 23:24) as the animal and cereal sacrifices were offered. From Numbers 29:2-6 it appears that the offerings required for this particular feast exceeded those prescribed for normal Sabbath sacrifice, but were somewhat less than those required for the regular new moon festival (cf. Nm 28:11). This feast was to be observed as a day of solemn rest and as a holy convocation, and the trumpets were sounded as a triumphant memorial to God’s great provision for his people through the Sinai covenant.<\/p>\n<p>The seventh month was particularly sacred, partly because of its place in the hallowed cycle of sevens, but also because the Day of Atonement (or Yom Kippur) and the Feast of Tabernacles, or Booths (Shelters), occurred during this period. The latter feast followed the Day of Atonement by some five days (Lv 23:33), and its joyful character served to offset somewhat the solemnity of the annual penitential occasion when the nation confessed its collective sins and saw them banished symbolically into the wilderness as the scapegoat was driven from the congregation.<\/p>\n<h6>The Sabbatical Year<\/h6>\n<p>Another festival closely connected with the institution of the Sabbath was the sabbatical year. At the end of each cycle of six years, the following 12 months were observed as a “sabbath of rest for the land.” During this interval, the ground was to lie fallow (Ex 23:11) without any form of cultivation, and whatever sprouted and grew from it naturally was assigned to the poor and needy (Lv 25:6). This provision for the land itself constituted one of the most important ecological principles of Scripture. Like God’s people, the land was holy, and just as they needed to have regular intervals of rest from daily work in order to regain their energy and spiritual vitality through worship, so the ground needed to rest and recuperate from the strain of constant cultivation. The festival reminded the Israelites that the land on which they lived had been given to them by God in fulfillment of his covenant undertaking to provide richly for their physical needs (cf. Dt 8:7-10). To keep the Israelites from experiencing any shortages or other hardships during the Year of Sabbath, God promised that in the year immediately preceding the sabbatical period, the land would bear fruit to suffice for the next three years (Lv 25:21). This assurance was based upon the experience of the wilderness wanderings, when on the sixth day of the week sufficient manna appeared to last through the Sabbath (Ex 16:5).<\/p>\n<p>In this festival period, God’s absolute claim over the land was reaffirmed (cf. Lv 25:23), and the faith of the nation in God’s ability to provide for future needs was reinforced. The provisions that freed the land for a year from agricultural bondage were paralleled in the seventh year of rest by those requiring liberation of slaves and debtors. These underprivileged members of society were to be released from their obligations of servitude. As a result, men and women who had become slaves for one reason or another were given personal liberty (Ex 21:2-6), and under proclamation of the Lord’s release, the provisions applying to debt were rescinded (Dt 15:1-6). The sabbatical year seems to have been a regular part of preexilic Israelite life, although some abuses were noted in Jeremiah 34:8-22. There the prophet took advantage of the opportunity presented to instruct the people in the nature and purpose of the sabbatical year ordinance. He also warned the wayward Judeans that because they had disobeyed the commands of God in denying proper liberty to their slaves, they would have their own freedom taken away in a far more serious manner by being carried captive to Babylonia after seeing their land destroyed. The lesson was not lost upon those who returned from exile, for under the administration of Nehemiah, the Jews bound themselves by a covenant to observe the principle of the sabbatical year (Neh 10:31). This undertaking evidently took its impetus from the reading of the law of Moses at the Feast of Booths (Shelters), which coincidentally occurred at the beginning of the sabbatical year (Neh 8:13-18).<\/p>\n<h6>Jubilee<\/h6>\n<p>Still another feast based on the principle of the sabbath was the Year of Jubilee, or Pentecostal year (Lv 25:8-55; 27:17-24). As the sabbatical year was related to the concept of the seventh day, so the Pentecostal (50th) year marked the completion of a cycle of seven sabbatical years. The commencement of a jubilee year was proclaimed on the Day of Atonement throughout the land by means of trumpet blasts (Lv 25:9). The activities that took place during the Pentecostal year were similar to those prescribed for the sabbatical year. A special feature was that land that had been sold during the preceding 49 years was returned to its original owners, a procedure that sometimes involved financial adjustments. To prevent abuse of the process through opportunism or speculation, the Hebrews were instructed to deal fairly and honestly with one another in the fear of God, who was the real owner of the land (Lv 25:14-17). As with the sabbatical year, God promised to make provision before the jubilee year so that no one would suffer hardship. It was during the Year of Jubilee that those who were slaves in Hebrew households were given their liberty, so that everyone in the land would commence a new cycle of sabbatical years on the same footing, as free persons under God.<\/p>\n<h5>Seasonal Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>Three annual festivals that followed the seasons of the year rather than phases of the moon furnished important occasions for commemorating God’s power and provision in national life. These festivals were designated by the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hag<\/span><em>,<\/em> indicating a festival usually observed by some sort of pilgrimage. These three festivals were prescribed in Exodus 23:14-17 and Deuteronomy 16:16, and consisted of the Feast of Passover and Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles). On these occasions, all the males of Israel were commanded to make pilgrimage to the sanctuary and celebrate these festivals (Ex 12:14). The Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were originally separate ordinances, but since the latter always followed immediately upon the Passover rite, they naturally blended into a single festival.<\/p>\n<h6>Passover<\/h6>\n<p>The Passover was of supreme theological significance for the Israelites, since it marked one of the most momentous acts of divine intervention in their history, the beginning of their deliverance from bondage in Egypt when, in the final plague, God destroyed the firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those Israelites whose homes had blood smeared on the doorposts (Ex 12:11-30). God commanded that the day was to be observed as a memorial feast (v 14), and the next Passover celebration occurred in the Sinai Desert (Nm 9:1-5). In the Hebrew calendar the Passover festival came in the first month, called Abib in Deuteronomy 16:1, but known after the exile as Nisan (cf. Neh 2:1). The Passover rite took place the 14th evening (Lv 23:5), and this was followed by a seven-day period during which nothing leavened was to be eaten. The principle for removing all leaven from bread was similar to that underlying the draining of blood from animal flesh. Both leaven and blood had quickening power and were to be kept separate as an offering to God. The first and seventh days of this period were marked by a holy assembly, during which the only work permitted was the preparation of food (Ex 12:16). This period when unleavened bread was eaten was described as a festival because it opened the seven-week period of grain harvest (Dt 16:9). During this feast, special burnt sacrifices were offered, followed with a sheaf of newly harvested barley at the Feast of Firstfruits. By NT times the festivals of Passover and Unleavened Bread were well-attended celebrations and were known as the “days of unleavened bread” (Lk 22:1; Acts 12:3). The theme of Israel’s deliverance from the power of Egypt by divine intervention assured the Israelites that God was always ready to act on behalf of a faithful and obedient covenant people. It also reminded them that they had once been slaves (Dt 16:12). In Israelite life the early Passover and Unleavened Bread observances were comparatively simple in character, but during the monarchy more elaborate Passover rituals came into use (cf. 2 Kgs 23:21-23; 2 Chr 35:1-19).<\/p>\n<h6>Pentecost<\/h6>\n<p>The second great festival, Pentecost (or Weeks) lasted one day only and was observed on the 50th day after the newly harvested barley sheaf had been waved before the Lord at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Dt 16:9-12). The festival marked the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest, the beginning of the period when firstfruits could be offered (cf. Ex 23:16; 34:22; Nm 28:26). The feast day was marked by the presentation of two wheat-flour loaves along with sacrifices of seven lambs, two rams, and a bull (Lv 23:15-20). Freewill gifts to God were presented to reflect gratitude for his blessings, and the entire occasion was one of communal rejoicing (Dt 16:10-11). Since Pentecost was essentially a harvest festival (Ex 23:16), the Israelites were called on to recognize that they depended entirely upon God for their material prosperity. In Deuteronomy 26, specific instructions were given for the ritual of presenting firstfruits from the harvest. It comprised a great confession of faith set within the framework of Israel’s history, and it recounted God’s deliverance of the nation from Egyptian oppression and his provision of a land that could amply supply the needs of his people.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of Tabernacles<\/h6>\n<p>This festival, known variously as the Feast of Booths, Tabernacles, Shelters (Lv 23:34; Dt 16:13), or Ingathering (Ex 34:22), was the third great occasion that all Hebrew males were required to observe annually. It began on the 15th day of the seventh month (Tishri), shortly after the observance of the Day of Atonement, which fell on the 10th day. The Feast of Booths lasted for one week and involved pilgrimage. It was associated initially with the end of the year (Ex 34:22), when the agricultural work had been completed. The first day was marked by a symbolic cessation from all activity, after which burnt offerings were presented to the Lord. The eighth day was also one on which the congregation of Israel abstained from manual work and again offered burnt sacrifices. Leviticus 23:39-43 furnished details for the rituals that gave the festival its special name of booths or shelters or tabernacles. The fruit of “goodly trees” was to be gathered on the first day of the feast, along with palm fronds, willow branches, and boughs from trees in full leaf. From these, rough shelters or booths were to be constructed in which the people lived for the week of the feast. Every seventh year the observances were marked by a public recital of the covenant provisions to which the Israelites under Moses had committed themselves, a procedure designed to keep fresh in their minds the obligations as well as the blessings of the covenant relationship. A particularly significant observance of the Feast of Tabernacles took place in the time of Ezra, when the Judean community returned from Babylon—a celebration of a kind unknown for centuries (Neh 8:13-18). From the context it appears that observance of the feast had lapsed during the monarchy. The feast at Shiloh where Hannah was mistaken for a drunken woman and the feast referred to in Judges 21:19 were evidently the Feast of Booths. In a prophetic vision in which he saw all nations coming to Jerusalem to observe the Festival of Booths, Zechariah warned that those who did not continue this tradition could expect hardship and shortages of food (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Postexilic Festivals<\/h5>\n<p>There are a few minor festivals that were created in the period after the Jews returned from exile; some of these festivals had their origin in specific historical occasions.<\/p>\n<h6>The Festival of Purim<\/h6>\n<p>The Festival of Purim, also known as the Festival of Lots, was a joyful occasion occurring on the 14th day of the 12th month (Adar). It celebrated the way in which Esther and Mordecai were used by God to deliver his people in the Persian Empire from extermination by Haman (Est 9:21, 24-28). The feast was observed on the 14th day of Adar by those living in villages, and on the 15th by the inhabitants of walled towns and cities. The explanation of the name of the festival is given in Esther 9:24-26, and its observance reminded the Hebrews of God’s ability to save them during a time of anti-Semitic activity in Persia. The deliverance memorialized in this festival has consoled the Jews on other occasions when they have suffered persecution. Traditionally the scroll of Esther was read aloud in the synagogue on the evening before the feast, and there was a great outcry, especially among the children present, whenever the names of the hated Haman and his sons were mentioned.<\/p>\n<h6>Festival of the Dedication of the Temple<\/h6>\n<p>Another joyous festival that lasted for eight days was the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple (1 Macc 4:52-59; 2 Macc 10:6-8), familiar to modern readers as Hanukkah, or the Festival of Lights. The specific dedication that prompted the feast occurred in 164 <span>BC<\/span>, when Judas Maccabeus reconsecrated the temple in Jerusalem after it had been defiled by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The celebrations commenced on the 25th day of the ninth month (Kislev) and were marked at night by blazing lights and lanterns. The stories of brave opposition by the Maccabees to the crushing forces of paganism were recounted, and the feast was one of praise to God for his marvelous deliverance of the Jews during the Maccabean period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentFestivals\">New Testament Festivals<\/p>\n<p>In Christ’s time the Sabbath was observed rigorously and was the occasion for synagogue worship (cf. Lk 4:16; Acts 13:14; 18:4). Pharisaic law prohibited all work, and Jesus came into conflict with the authorities periodically for breaches of the Sabbath regulations (cf. Mt 12:1-4; Mk 3:1-5; Lk 13:10-17). In the primitive church, worship occurred on “the first day of the week” (i.e., Sunday) to commemorate Christ’s resurrection. The early Christians initially participated in Jewish ceremonies (cf. Acts 20:16; 1 Cor 16:8). It was during the Feast of Pentecost, after Christ’s resurrection and ascension, that the Spirit was poured out (Acts 2:1-4), fulfilling Joel 2:28-32 and commencing the history of the Christian church as such.<\/p>\n<p>The Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread were of great significance in the life of Christ (cf. Jn 4:45; 5:1; 6:4; 12:1-26), for the occasion was a very popular one in NT times (cf. 12:20). On the Passover, Pilate had instituted the custom of clemency to a prisoner nominated by the populace (Mt 27:15; Mk 15:6). Jesus participated actively in the Passover rituals (cf. Lk 2:42; Jn 2:13; 6:4). The Last Supper with his disciples occurred just prior to the Passover (Jn 13:1), when Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus to the Pharisees (Lk 22:4-6). The breaking of bread and the drinking of wine at that Passover celebration (Mk 14:22-25) were related directly to Christ’s forthcoming death on the cross in a sacramental manner. Christ’s disciples were instructed to observe this rite as a memorial of his suffering and death for human sin (1 Cor 11:24-26) and as a proclamation of the power of the cross until the Lord returns in glory. Some scholars have suggested that Christ was actually hanging on the cross when the Passover lamb was being slaughtered, and if that chronology is correct, it would represent Jesus graphically as the “Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world” (Jn 1:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). Jesus was also present once when the Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated (7:10). In his day water was carried in procession from the pool of Siloam as an offering to God, and the ceremony most probably prompted Christ’s discourse on living water and eternal life (vv 37-39). On at least one occasion Jesus was in Jerusalem when the Festival of Lights occurred (Jn 10:22) and narrowly missed death by stoning.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was entertained occasionally at private feasts (cf. Lk 5:29), and once remedied an emergency situation when the wine ran out at a wedding ceremony (Jn 2:8-10). He was critical of the Pharisees for securing the chief seats at feasts (Mt 23:6; Mk 12:39; Lk 20:46) and taught that festivals ought to benefit the poor (Lk 14:13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SymbolismofFeasts\">Symbolism of Feasts<\/p>\n<p>Many aspects of the ancient Hebrew feasts were interpreted symbolically in the early church. Paul regarded the earliest Hebrew Christians as the firstfruits of the Israel of God (Rom 11:16). In Romans 8:23, the Holy Spirit as possessed by Christians was regarded as only a token of what was to come, and as such was the firstfruit of the Spirit. Christians themselves were described in James 1:18 as the firstfruits of God’s creatures who were brought forth by the Word of Truth. The resurrection of Jesus was considered by Paul to be the firstfruits of those who slept (1 Cor 15:20, 23). In an allusion to OT festivals, Paul spoke of the Sabbaths, new moons, and feasts as merely being a shadow of good things to come (Col 2:16-17). The Passover was used figuratively to emphasize that Christ our Passover Lamb had been sacrificed for us. Believers were urged to keep the feast with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth, and not with the old leaven of malice and evil (1 Cor 5:7-8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Calendars, Ancient and Modern; Offerings and Sacrifices; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","summary_en":"FEASTS AND FESTIVALS OF ISRAEL Occasions of public or private rejoicing to commemorate some significant event or personage. The element of celebration has a special meaning in the cycle of religious occasions and the rites and ceremonies associated with these particular days. While the idea of a feast commonly implies a banquet with plenteous food and drink, this element is not indispensable. Sometimes there is only a token amount, as in the celebration of Holy Communion. In contemporary usag...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":48340,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","summary_en":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75966,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","summary_en":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103592,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","summary_en":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131218,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:3","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:3-4<\/strong> <em>my life and the lives of my people:<\/em> The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • <em>my people and I have been sold:<\/em> Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to <em>kill, slaughter, and annihilate<\/em> (cp. 3:13). • <em>If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet:<\/em> Esther humbly justifies her request as due to the severity of the attack on her and her people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","summary_en":"7:3-4 my life and the lives of my people: The statement that someone wanted to kill the queen and her family must have surprised and shocked the king. • my people and I have been sold: Esther carefully referred to the huge price Haman had paid the king to approve the decree (3:8-11). She also used the exact terminology of Haman’s decree when she said that its purpose was to kill, slaughter, and annihilate (cp. 3:13). • If we had merely been sold as slaves, I could remain quiet: Esther humbly ...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":48341,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:5","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","summary_en":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75967,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:5","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","summary_en":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103593,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:5","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","summary_en":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131219,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:5","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:5<\/strong> <em>Who would do such a thing?<\/em> The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","summary_en":"7:5 Who would do such a thing? The king could hardly believe what he was hearing and could not imagine someone trying to do this atrocious thing. He asks for no details about Esther’s accusations, assuming they were all true (cp. 3:10).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":48342,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","summary_en":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75968,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","summary_en":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103594,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","summary_en":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131220,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:6","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:6-7<\/strong> <em>Esther<\/em> finally identified <em>this wicked Haman<\/em> as the <em>enemy<\/em>. • <em>Haman grew pale with fright:<\/em> With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident <em>rage<\/em> of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","summary_en":"7:6-7 Esther finally identified this wicked Haman as the enemy. • Haman grew pale with fright: With this surprising and aggressive accusation by the queen and the evident rage of the king, Haman’s doom suddenly became apparent.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":48343,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","summary_en":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75969,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","summary_en":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103595,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","summary_en":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131221,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:8","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:8<\/strong> <em>he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining:<\/em> A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • <em>Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes?<\/em> This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","summary_en":"7:8 he fell on the couch where Queen Esther was reclining: A major mistake, for no one should touch the queen, much less be on the same couch with her. • Will he even assault the queen . . . before my very eyes? This exaggerated rhetorical question implicates Haman with the worst possible motives.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":6218,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Chamberlain*","title_en":"Chamberlain*","content_ro":"<h3>CHAMBERLAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHAMBERLAIN*<\/h3>\n<p>Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHAMBERLAIN* Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, kjv) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).","summary_en":"CHAMBERLAIN* Originally, a royal official in charge of the private quarters of the king. They sometimes had other significant tasks and had great influence with those in authority (Acts 12:20). The chamberlain Erastus (Rom 16:23, kjv) was actually the city treasurer. Nathan-melech the chamberlain (2 Kgs 23:11) was a court official at the time of Josiah. The Persian kings used eunuchs as chamberlains (Est 1:10, 12, 15; 2:3, 14-15; 4:4-5; 6:2, 14; 7:9).","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8137,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","title_en":"Law and Punishment*, Criminal","content_ro":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT*<\/h3>\n<p>The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, “crimes” included all punishable offenses, even religious offenses such as idolatry (worshiping a false god) or blasphemy (speaking or behaving with contempt toward God).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>• Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<p>• Punishment<\/p>\n<p>• Conclusion<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NearEasternContext\">Near Eastern Context<\/p>\n<p>In ancient societies as in modern ones, laws were considered necessary to regulate individual behavior for the good of the community, state, or nation. Today laws are thought of as made by people for their own protection. In contrast, all ancient Near Eastern law codes were considered to have come directly from some divine source. Hebrew law, though distinct, followed the general pattern of Near Eastern law codes, as is known from those that have survived—such as the Code of Hammurabi and Assyrian and Hittite laws.<\/p>\n<p>Conclusions about the “origin” of ancient laws should be made cautiously. Although evidence indicates that Hammurabi based his legislation partially on earlier Sumerian codes, he declared that his code had been received from Shamash, god of justice. That declaration must have been intended to convey primarily that his code had the express sanction of Shamash, since at least some people would recognize it as a compilation based largely on earlier laws. Similarly, the clear biblical statements about Moses receiving the law on Mt Sinai (Ex 19–24) do not rule out the possibility that parts of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) may have existed in earlier codes. Possibly the Mosaic legislation included some social rules adapted from the period of Israel’s sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HebrewCriminalLaw\">Hebrew Criminal Law<\/p>\n<h5>Laws Governing Offenses against God<\/h5>\n<p>Since Hebrew law was designed for a group of people for whom religion was of paramount importance and whose faith was endangered by the influence of the beliefs of their pagan neighbors, it is not surprising that so much of Hebrew law dealt with crimes committed against God. The prohibition against worshiping idols is stated and repeated in the Torah, or Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible): “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them” (Ex 20:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). Sacrifice of infants, practiced in some pagan religions, was specifically prohibited in Israel. The penalty for that crime, as for the other forms of murder, was stoning to death (Lv 20:2).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Leviticus, death by stoning was recorded as the appropriate punishment for blaspheming the name of God (Lv 24:11-16). False prophecy was also a criminal offense; that accusation could apply to a person making a prediction in the name of a god other than the Lord, or implying falsely that one’s prophecy resulted from a communication with God. Jeremiah, whose prophecy of Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over the southern kingdom of Judah was for a time considered to be false, was almost lynched by a mob (Jer 26:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The idea of keeping the seventh day holy stemmed from the celebration of God’s work in creating the universe in six days and resting on the seventh. Keeping the Sabbath required cessation of manual work for the entire family, including farm animals (Ex 16:23; 20:8-11). People were also required to meet together on the Sabbath for worship, which at a later period in Hebrew history included the reading of Scripture, prayer, and preaching. Anyone breaking the Sabbath could be sentenced to death, as happened to a man caught gathering firewood on the Sabbath (Nm 15:32-36).<\/p>\n<p>Any type of premeditated crime was considered an offense against God, the giver of all law; hence, it was punishable by death (Nm 15:30-31). Hebrew law also insisted on donation of the firstfruits of harvest to the Lord without delay. That requirement was sometimes carried over to include a first child, whose life was dedicated to service in the temple (Ex 22:29-30; Dt 15:19).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Injury<\/h5>\n<p>Murder, an offense against “God’s image,” was one of many crimes punishable by death in OT times. The book of Exodus stated unequivocally that “anyone who hits a person hard enough to cause death must be put to death” (Ex 21:12, <span>nlt<\/span>). A murderer who killed by using a weapon such as a stone, a piece of wood, or iron could be killed in revenge by a relative of the deceased. If the original death happened accidentally, the community would sometimes help to conceal the killer and encourage him to hide in a nearby city of refuge, where he would be safe as long as he remained within its gates. He had to stay in that sanctuary until the death of the high priest then in office, after which he was free to return to his own city (Nm 35:10-28). The sixth commandment enjoined, “You shall not kill” (Ex 20:13). The Hebrew word referred specifically to murder, not to all forms of killing. Killing an enemy in battle and the execution of a murderer were considered necessary and were not prohibited. More than one witness was required for any conviction, particularly in a murder case (Nm 35:30; Dt 17:6; 19:15).<\/p>\n<p>In the Code of Hammurabi a man responsible for an accidental injury to another was required to pay for the services of the physician. If the victim died, a fine was payable according to the victim’s rank. In a sense the Hebrews went further by requiring payment for any loss of time suffered by the injured person (Ex 21:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Kidnapping was punishable by death in the OT. Exodus states that “Kidnappers must be killed, whether they are caught in possession of their victims or have already sold them as slaves” (Ex 21:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). Joseph’s being sold into slavery by his brothers illustrates this kind of kidnapping.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws concerning Property<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus is quite specific about anyone responsible for damage to the property or crops of another. If a field caught fire and the fire spread, damaging crops in other fields, the person who started the fire, or perhaps the owner of the first field to catch fire, was responsible for the damage (Ex 22:6). Hammurabi’s code cited a similar instance of a man who neglected to keep a dike in repair and was therefore responsible for flood damage to his neighbor’s crops.<\/p>\n<p>Injuries to animals, especially oxen, or injuries to people or property caused by such animals formed an important area of Hebrew law. If an ox that had been previously good-tempered killed a man, the owner would be blameless, although the ox would be put to death—a severe financial penalty for the owner. If an ox with a history of goring killed a man because its owner failed to restrain it adequately, both ox and owner would be put to death. The owner’s life could be ransomed by payment of an agreed-upon sum. If the person an ox gored was a servant, the ox was stoned and the owner paid a fine (Ex 21:28-32). The Code of Hammurabi also recommended no punishment for a first offense by an animal, but if the owner knew that the ox was dangerous and had taken no steps to prevent harm, a fine in silver was payable—a very large fine for an upper-class victim, slightly less if the victim was a slave. However bad the circumstances and however vicious the ox, the Code of Hammurabi stopped at a fine for the offense, never imposing a death penalty on either the animal or the owner.<\/p>\n<p>Negligence causing injury to an animal was also punished in Hebrew law. If an ox or a donkey fell into a pit carelessly left uncovered, the owner of the animal was reimbursed for its loss (Ex 21:33-36).<\/p>\n<p>In ancient cultures women were generally considered chattel (personal property), much like animals or slaves. A daughter was considered to be her father’s property until her marriage, then the property of her husband. Therefore, any offense against a married woman was regarded as an offense against the property of the husband. According to the Code of Hammurabi, a child could be sold into slavery as a servant or bondsman, usually in payment of the father’s debt (cf. Ex 21:2-7; Neh 5:5-8; Is 50:1). Parental authority was so highly regarded in biblical law that a stubborn and rebellious son could be brought before the elders on the grounds of being disobedient and a glutton or a drunkard. He might then be convicted and stoned to death on the spot by the men of the city (Dt 21:18-21). Even that, however, was a protection of the child’s rights; some Near Eastern legislation allowed a parent to order the death of his offspring without reference to the elders or to anyone else. With daughters in particular being held in such low esteem, it is perhaps remarkable that a daughter could inherit property if there were no sons (Nm 27:8).<\/p>\n<p>Adultery, prohibited in the Decalogue, was another crime against a man’s property, specifically his wife. The book of Deuteronomy goes into considerable detail about cases of adultery—the punishment for both persons being death (Dt 22:22). If a man seduced a young woman who was not betrothed, he was required to pay her father the bride price (50 silver shekels); he could not divorce her but had to keep her as his wife for the rest of his life (Ex 22:16; Dt 22:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>In a situation where a wife was accused of adultery but without evidence, a trial was conducted. The husband would bring his wife to a priest and present a small offering (a tenth of a measure of barley meal, with neither oil nor frankincense on it), indicating the low esteem in which he now held his wife. The woman then stood before the Lord holding an earthen jar of “holy water.” Dust from the floor of the tabernacle was mixed with the water, and the cereal offering was placed in her hands. Her hair was loosened by the priest to show not only her grief but also to give an impression of abandonment. She was then required to take an oath. After that, the priest pronounced a curse upon her to the effect that her womb would be fertilized easily, but that she would have many miscarriages. She had to give her consent to that pronouncement. The priest then wrote the curses in a book and symbolically washed them off into the “bitter water.” The woman was required to drink the water while the priest waved the cereal offering from her hands before the Lord and burned some of it on the altar. The priest told her that if she was guilty, the water would make her thigh rot and her abdomen swell. If that happened, she would become an outcast; but if she were proved innocent, she would be free. Whatever the result, no blame for false accusation fell upon the husband (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a slave was struck by his master in such a manner as to cause instant death, the slave’s death had to be avenged. If the slave lingered, possibly for days, he did not need to be avenged, his loss being a sufficient punishment for the owner (Ex 21:20-21). It is unlikely that the Hebrews had much experience with that law, which had no parallels in Hammurabi’s code. If an owner injured his slave by causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, Hebrew law required that the slave be set free (vv 26-27). The Code of Hammurabi gave an example of a man injuring another man’s slave; the owner had to be paid half the slave’s value.<\/p>\n<p>Little emphasis was placed on burglary or larceny in the Hebrew law code. A burglar was presumed to be repentant and ready to make restitution. After return of the stolen property and payment of a small additional fine, a thief could again “approach the Lord” (Lv 6:2-7). By contrast, the Code of Hammurabi prescribed the death penalty for burglary. In Hebrew law, theft of an animal required restitution to be made in the ratio of at least two to one; if a bull or a cow had been stolen or sold, the thief had to restore the property fivefold. The Code of Hammurabi contained a similar statute: “If a man steal ox or sheep, ass or pig, or goat—if it be from a god or a palace, he shall restore thirtyfold; if it be from a freeman, he shall render tenfold. If the thief have nothing wherewith to pay, he shall be put to death.” In Hebrew law goods stolen from a home were simply to be restored without additional penalty. If the thief no longer had the goods and was unable to pay the equivalent value, he might be sold into slavery until restitution was made (Ex 22:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>General Laws<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew code as contained in Exodus and Deuteronomy included many general prohibitions. Some concerned business dealings such as the removal of boundary markers (Dt 19:14). The use of false weights and measures was condemned (Lv 19:35; Dt 25:15; Prv 11:1; 20:23; Mi 6:11). Bribery was strictly forbidden (Ex 23:8), yet no punishment was specified for those who broke that law. In the Code of Hammurabi, if a judge changed his decision and was unable to give a satisfactory explanation, particularly if bribery was suspected, the judge had to pay 12 times the amount of the penalty and lost his seat on the bench. In the Hebrew code, perjury was also dealt with, although again no punishment was specified. The Code of Hammurabi stated that for perjury in cases where the punishment was death, persons giving false testimony were to be sentenced to death themselves (cf. Ex 23:1).<\/p>\n<p>A number of Hebrew laws reflected concern for the poor. For example, poor people were not to be subjected to usury if they were in debt, or left cold at night if their coats were taken as a pledge. Widows, orphans, and strangers were also to be treated with mercy and understanding (Ex 22:21-27; 23:9; Dt 23:19; 24:17).<\/p>\n<p>Some Hebrew laws concerned family behavior, such as those previously mentioned who cursed or disobeyed their parents (Ex 21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 27:16; cf. Prv 20:20; 30:17). Family responsibilities were strong; an entire family frequently suffered punishment for the crime of one of its individual members (Jos 7:20-26; 2 Sm 3:29; 21:1-9; 2 Kgs 5:27; Lam 5:7). Over a period of time, as individual responsibility came to be recognized, parents were no longer put to death for the crimes of their children, or vice versa (cf. Jer 31:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Sorcery and witchcraft were forbidden. The book of Exodus stated explicitly, “A sorceress must not be allowed to live” (22:18, <span>nlt<\/span>). Sexual perversions, such as intercourse with animals, were forbidden under penalty of death. Regulations prohibiting marriage with close relatives were given in detail (Lv 20:17-21).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew law no parallel existed for some interesting items in the Code of Hammurabi concerning surgery. That code mentioned veterinary surgery and even operations on the human eye. A Babylonian surgeon had to be wary, for “if a physician makes a deep incision upon a man with his bronze lancet and causes the man’s death or operates on the eye socket of a man with his bronze lancet and destroys the man’s eye, then they shall cut off his hand.” Surgery was virtually unknown among the ancient Israelites except for the ritual practice of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Punishment\">Punishment<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern punishments for murder and personal injury were retaliatory and often of the same nature as the offense. Other methods of punishment tended to vary with individual countries or traditions. Many kinds of punishment were inflicted on people defeated in both a full-scale war or a small insurrection.<\/p>\n<h5>Physical Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Many forms of punishment stopped short of killing but could nevertheless be quite severe.<\/p>\n<p>1. In the OT beating with rods or switches was the traditional form of discipline for children, fools, and slaves (Ex 21:20; Prv 13:24; 26:3). Scourging (also called flogging) was more severe than beating. The whip employed could be made of several strips of leather fastened at one end or of two interwoven leather strips. A whip nicknamed “scorpion” (because of the barbs in its end) was one of the cruelest instruments of punishment mentioned in the OT (1 Kgs 12:11, 14). The severity of punishment could be increased by inserting pieces of metal or bone into the leather.<\/p>\n<p>Before a scourging, the victim would be examined for physical fitness. If death resulted from the blows, no blame was attached to the person administering the punishment. The victim was stripped to the waist and tied to a pillar, his hands bound with leather thongs. The severity of a scourging depended on the crime, although the Mosaic law set an upper limit of 40 lashes (Dt 25:1-3). To guard against a miscount, that number was later lowered by one (2 Cor 11:24). Lashes might be administered both on the chest and the back. Under some law codes, scourging could be used as a private punishment; in that case, if the victim died, another life was forfeit.<\/p>\n<p>In offenses against the law, synagogue authorities administered scourgings (Mt 10:17). A husband might be scourged by the elders of the city for defamation of his wife’s character (Dt 22:18). Scourging was also used as a means of interrogating a prisoner—hence, a Roman captain’s comment that the apostle Paul should be “examined by scourging” (Acts 22:24).<\/p>\n<p>The Romans usually reserved scourging for non-Roman citizens, such as slaves or aliens, as well as for those condemned to death. Normally, criminals were scourged after they had been condemned to death; it is therefore unusual to find the scourging of Jesus taking place before his condemnation. Pilate may have hoped to soften the people’s hearts by Jesus’ suffering so that they would not demand the death penalty (Lk 23:16, 22; Jn 19:1).<\/p>\n<p>Citizens of the Roman Empire could never be beaten or scourged before sentencing (Acts 22:25). Hence, the magistrates were afraid when they heard that Paul, a Roman citizen, had been beaten under those circumstances (16:37-39).<\/p>\n<li>2. The gouging out of the eyes of prisoners and captives was a common practice in the Near East. The Philistines blinded Samson before imprisoning him (Jgs 16:21). The Babylonians did the same to King Zedekiah in 587 <span>BC<\/span> before taking him into captivity (2 Kgs 25:7). The Ammonite king Nahash was prepared to accept peace overtures from the men of the city of Jabesh on condition that all their right eyes be gouged out. Nahash’s purpose was to disgrace them and prevent them from further active participation in warfare (1 Sm 11:1-4).<\/li>\n<li>3. Several forms of mutilation served as punishments in the Near East. The Israelites considered their own bodies sacred and made in God’s image, but that did not prevent them from mutilating their enemies by cutting off their thumbs and large toes.<\/li>\n<p>The Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian law code prescribed mutilation of the eye, nose, ear, breast, tongue, lip, hand, and finger as punishments for specific crimes. In Assyria, punishment was often inflicted by the victim of the crime under supervision of court officials. The Code of Hammurabi also contained safeguards so that criminals were not punished in excess of the law’s sentence.<\/p>\n<li>4. Stocks are mentioned as a form of punishment in the later OT period. The prophets Hanani (2 Chr 16:10) and Jeremiah (Jer 20:2-3) suffered the indignity of being placed in stocks. Both ankles, and sometimes the wrists and head as well, were placed in holes in two large pieces of wood. In Roman times, stocks were converted to a form of torture, with a prisoner’s legs stretched to holes increasingly far apart. In the NT, Paul and Silas had their feet placed in stocks by a Philippian jailer (Acts 16:24). The same Greek word, meaning “confinement,” can refer to fetters chaining a prisoner or to an iron collar like that worn by runaway Roman slaves.<\/li>\n<h5>Capital Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>Capital punishment was common in many Near Eastern countries. Several methods were used.<\/p>\n<p>1. Those who offended a king were beheaded with a sword (2 Sm 16:9; 2 Kgs 6:31-32), as were idolaters and murderers (according to the Mishnah, the Jewish commentary on the law). The sword was probably used for private executions as well. Inhabitants of entire cities were sometimes “put to the sword” for their denial of the faith (Ex 32:27; Dt 13:15).<\/p>\n<li>2. Certain sexual offenses were punished with death by burning (Lv 20:14; 21:9). Tamar, Judah’s daughter-in-law, was accused of adultery and ordered to be burned to death outside the city (Gn 38:24). The Lord instructed that anyone whose feet touched the holy ground of Mt Sinai was to be shot with arrows or stoned (Ex 19:13).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hanging may have been a form of execution in biblical times. But many scholars think the word translated “hanging” or “hanging on a tree” actually meant impalement (Nm 25:4; Dt 21:22-23; Jos 8:29; 2 Sm 21:6, 9; Est 9:14). A spiked wooden stake was set in the ground and the victim’s body was forced onto the spike, the tip of which probably protruded from the chest or mouth. Commonly practiced by the Assyrians, that form of execution was reserved for those guilty of the worst crimes and for prisoners of war or deserters. The Persian king Darius is reputed to have impaled 3,000 men when his army entered Babylon. Impalement was the penalty Darius set for changing his edict concerning the rebuilding of the temple (Ezr 6:11-12). It is not certain whether Haman was hung or impaled (see Est 7:9-10, <span>nlt<\/span> and mg notes).<\/li>\n<p>Usually “hanging” was a means of exhibiting a corpse as a warning to local inhabitants (Gn 40:19; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sm 4:12). Corpses were exhibited for only one day and were buried before nightfall. The hanging corpse was considered a defilement of the land that God had given (Dt 21:22-23). According to the Mishnah, the hands were tied together and the body hanged from the arm of a wooden gallows.<\/p>\n<li>4. Crucifixion was a punishment employed by the Syrian king Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167–166 <span>BC<\/span>; according to Josephus, a first-century <span>AD<\/span> Jewish historian, Jews who refused to give up their traditional faith were so executed. During the Maccabean period (167–40 <span>BC<\/span>), Alexander Janneus crucified 800 rebellious Pharisees in an attempt to reestablish his authority. Crucifixion was a widespread form of execution: it was used in most places in the Roman Empire, including India, North Africa, and Germany. Between 4 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70, on some occasions the number of people crucified at one time reached into the thousands.<\/li>\n<p>Three types of crosses seem to have been used: a cross with the crossbar below the head of the upright bar (Latin cross); a T-shaped cross (St Anthony’s cross); and an X-shaped cross (St Andrew’s cross). Matthew records that an inscription, “This is Jesus, the King of the Jews,” was placed over Jesus’ head (Mt 27:37). That indicates that for Jesus’ crucifixion a Latin cross was used, as artists have traditionally depicted it. In crucifixions the victim was most likely affixed to the cross while it was still lying flat on the ground. Then the cross was raised into position and dropped into a hole. The hands were either nailed or bound to the cross; it is uncertain whether the feet were nailed with one or two nails. The weight of the body was supported by a piece of wood at the feet and possibly by another that was like a spike between the legs.<\/p>\n<li>5. Stoning was the most common Hebrew death penalty. The first stones were thrown by the prosecution witnesses, who were then joined by spectators. Stoning was the punishment for certain religious offenses (Lv 24:16; Nm 15:32-36; Dt 13:1-10; 17:2-5), adultery (Dt 22:23-24), child sacrifice (Lv 20:2), divination of spirits (Lv 20:27), and rebellion (Dt 21:18-21). Before his conversion, the apostle Paul witnessed and consented to the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58-59). Paul himself later survived a stoning at Lystra (14:19). In Roman times, a person would occasionally be stoned as he stood on a gallows.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>Hebrew law was part of the Torah (“instruction”) given by God to make his covenant people holy. At that time the Israelites were a seminomadic band of former slaves. Although there are similarities with the Code of Hammurabi and other laws of settled Near Eastern cultures, there are also many differences. Hebrew law often had a broader view, even in its less sophisticated cultural setting, as though its purpose was more to teach godly behavior than to stabilize society. The simplicity and directness of the Ten Commandments, in particular, continue to influence jurisprudence, even in modern secular society.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible’s primary message is God’s love for his covenant people, yet it never overlooks the harsh realities of life in a fallen world. Human beings sin and they commit crimes; they suffer estrangement from God because of their sin and are punished for their crimes. Christians are constantly reminded of the realism of God’s love by the cross as the symbol of Christian faith. They see the crucifixion of Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of OT prophecy that the Lord put our iniquity on him (Is 53:5-6). The NT conviction is that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Courts and Trials; Hammurabi, Law Code of; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","summary_en":"CRIMINAL LAW AND PUNISHMENT* The science or philosophy of law is called jurisprudence. Although modern jurisprudence bears little resemblance to biblical concepts of law, the Scriptures have played a definite role in its development. Today, criminal law is clearly distinguished from civil law; in Bible times the distinction was much less clear. Today, offenses against civil law (torts) are distinguished from minor crimes (misdemeanors) as well as from serious crimes (felonies). In the Bible, ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11173,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Esther","title_en":"Book of Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the book to become part of the official Persian court record. The use of God’s name might have prevented that from happening.<\/p>\n<p>The author of the book had considerable knowledge of Persian court life and customs. Thus, Mordecai might be identified with a Morduka mentioned as a Persian court official in the reign of Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>) and Xerxes (486–464 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandPurpose\">Date, Origin, and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Immediate impressions favor a date for the book of Esther shortly after 465 <span>BC<\/span>, if Ahasuerus is identified with Xerxes, who died that year. Many contemporary scholars, however, favor a later date. The apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, written about 180 <span>BC<\/span>, refers to that period. Jewish heroes are mentioned there, but Esther and Mordecai are not included. Some also suggest the period of the Maccabees as the time of the book’s writing. Others have identified it with a cultic story from ancient Babylon, associating Esther with the goddess Ishtar and Mordecai with the god Marduk. The earliest postbiblical reference to the Feast of Purim is 2 Maccabees 15:36, probably written about 75 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther claims to record events in Persia sometime during the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>, surrounding the selection of Esther as queen. If a later date is preferred, the book can be viewed as written to encourage Jews during a time of persecution. One definite purpose of the book of Esther is to explain the origin of the Jewish Feast of Purim (Est 9:16-28). The term “purim” is probably related to the Assyrian word <em>puru,<\/em> meaning a small stone used for casting lots.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>The major theological problem with the book of Esther is the absence of any mention of God and the lack of even an intimation of divine providence. As a result, some scholars in both Jewish and Christian circles question its canonicity. But closer observation reveals an obvious providential dimension in the book. The reference to fasting in 4:16, for example, implies prayer as well as abstinence from food. Esther’s being in the right place at the right time is no accident. The fall of Haman is also not accidental. On the negative side, the extreme measures taken in hanging Haman’s sons reflects a collective view of guilt that is not acceptable today (9:13-14). Implicit, too, is the theme of God’s protection of his covenant people even in times of persecution. That fact has made the book of Esther a favorite of Jews throughout history.<\/p>\n<p>Its practical implications, however, have not kept some from questioning the book’s genuineness as a part of the Bible. The book of Esther appears in the third part of the Jewish canon, as part of the five scrolls known as the Megilloth; its companions there are Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. The Septuagint (Greek version of the OT) contains 107 extra verses in the book of Esther. These additions form part of the Apocrypha in English versions of the Bible. Even as late as the Reformation era, Esther’s canonicity was being debated, and some contemporary evangelicals have raised doubts about its value. Its canonicity is favored by (1) its history of acceptance in both Judaism and the Christian church, and (2) its illustrative value for teaching God’s providential care of the Jewish people (see Rom 9–11; Rv 7, 14).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>A number of historical problems have been noted: (1) Xerxes’ known wife was named Amestris, according to the historian Herodotus. But it is likely that the king had more than one wife. (2) The implication that Mordecai went into exile in 597 <span>BC<\/span> would have made him about 120 years old during the reign of Xerxes. But the text of 2:5-6 might mean that Mordecai’s great-grandfather was the original exile rather than Mordecai. (3) Various details seem fanciful to some modern readers: a banquet lasting 180 days; Esther’s 12-month beauty treatment; a gallows 83 feet (25.3 meters) tall; the Jews killing 75,000 of Xerxes’ subjects (see 1:4; 2:7, 12; 7:9; 9:16). But what appears mythological sometimes turns out to be historical.<\/p>\n<p>Several elements in the book of Esther point to a genuinely historical setting for the book. Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes. Xerxes’ father was Darius, from whom have come some notable inscriptions and relief sculptures, one of them showing Darius seated on his throne with Xerxes standing behind him. Xerxes is believed to have been a weak-willed man in domestic affairs, easily influenced by flattering and scheming courtiers. On the field of battle, however, he was a vigorous leader who ferociously pursued his objectives. His energetic suppression of a revolt in Egypt was a prelude to mustering a navy to attack Athens. Only the skill and daring of the Greek forces at the naval battle of Salamis (480 <span>BC<\/span>) saved Greece from complete Persian occupation. Xerxes eventually lost the war and retired to his elegant palaces at Persepolis and Susa. He rejected the traditional gods of Egypt and Babylon and became a devotee of Ahuramazda, the Persian spirit of good.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Esther portrays the reign of King Ahasuerus, whose empire stretched from India to Ethiopia (1:1-9). The center of his empire was in Susa (Shushan), in Persia. Because Queen Vashti disgraced the king by refusing his order to appear in court, she was removed, and a search began for a new queen (1:10-22). A young Jewish woman named Hadassah, without parents and living with her kinsman Mordecai, was selected to replace Queen Vashti (2:1-18). Early in her reign Esther and Mordecai helped to save the king’s life (vv 19-23). A man named Haman, who was promoted to an influential position in the palace court, plotted to kill the Jews because he hated Mordecai (ch 3). Mordecai intervened through Queen Esther, and the queen called on the Jews in Susa to fast for deliverance (ch 4). Esther’s intervention with the king led to a sleepless night for Ahasuerus (5:1–6:1). He reviewed the records of “memorable deeds,” and discovered that Mordecai’s earlier help had gone unrewarded. When Haman arrived to initiate his plot against the Jews, the king ordered him to honor Mordecai (ch 6). When Haman’s plot was then discovered, the schemer was hanged (ch 7). The king honored Mordecai and sent out an edict protecting the Jews from harm (ch 8). The Jews, by the king’s permission, killed the soldiers who would earlier have killed them in Haman’s plot (9:1-16). To celebrate their national deliverance, the Jews planned a great celebration (9:17–10:3). That celebration became the Festival of Purim—a time of feasting and distribution of gifts to all, especially to the poor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Esther (Person); Persia, Persians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Book of Old Testament book telling the story of a Jewish woman’s protection of her people after her marriage to a gentile king. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Purpose • Canonicity • Background • Content Author The book of Esther is an anonymous composition. The reference in 9:20 that Mordecai “recorded these things” implies that part, if not all, of the book was written by him. The absence of God’s name in the book of Esther may be due to the fact that the author intended the bo...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15333,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Harbona","title_en":"Harbona","content_ro":"<h3>HARBONA<\/h3>\n<p>One of King Ahasuerus’s seven personal attendants. They were ordered by Ahasuerus to parade Queen Vashti before a drunken banquet to satisfy his vanity (Est 1:10). Harbona later suggested that Haman be hanged on the gallows he had built for Mordecai (7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARBONA<\/h3>\n<p>One of King Ahasuerus’s seven personal attendants. They were ordered by Ahasuerus to parade Queen Vashti before a drunken banquet to satisfy his vanity (Est 1:10). Harbona later suggested that Haman be hanged on the gallows he had built for Mordecai (7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARBONA One of King Ahasuerus’s seven personal attendants. They were ordered by Ahasuerus to parade Queen Vashti before a drunken banquet to satisfy his vanity (Est 1:10). Harbona later suggested that Haman be hanged on the gallows he had built for Mordecai (7:9).","summary_en":"HARBONA One of King Ahasuerus’s seven personal attendants. They were ordered by Ahasuerus to parade Queen Vashti before a drunken banquet to satisfy his vanity (Est 1:10). Harbona later suggested that Haman be hanged on the gallows he had built for Mordecai (7:9).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":48344,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","summary_en":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75970,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","summary_en":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":103596,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","summary_en":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":131222,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Estera 7:9","title_en":"Study Note: Estera 7:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>7:9<\/strong> <em>He intended to use it to impale Mordecai:<\/em> Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • <em>impale Haman on it!<\/em> This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.<\/p>","summary_ro":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","summary_en":"7:9 He intended to use it to impale Mordecai: Harbona, one of the king’s seven eunuchs (1:10), was apparently no friend of Haman and was already aware of Haman’s plot. • impale Haman on it! This great reversal of fortunes demonstrates the guiding hand of God. Regarding impalement, see study note on 2:23.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":11158,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Additions to Esther","title_en":"Additions to Esther","content_ro":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ESTHER, Additions to<\/h3>\n<p>Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 <span>BC<\/span> is generally suggested, which would place them considerably later than the canonical Esther.<\/p>\n<p>A summary of the additions is as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1. 11:2–12:6: Mordecai’s dream, including the plot against the king’s life. This passage preceded Esther 1:1.<\/p>\n<li>2. 13:1-7: The edict of Artaxerxes. This addition follows Esther 3:13, where the king is called Ahasuerus.<\/li>\n<li>3. 13:8–14:19: The prayers of Mordecai and Esther. This passage was to be inserted after Esther 4:17.<\/li>\n<li>4. 15:1-16: The king’s anger at Esther’s appearance, and his subsequent change of attitude. This was to be inserted before Esther 5:3, since it is an expansion of Esther 5:1-2.<\/li>\n<li>5. 16:1-24: The edict of Ahasuerus relating to the Jews. This section was to follow 8:12.<\/li>\n<li>6. 10:4–11:1: The interpretation of Mordecai’s dream. This addition follows 10:3.<\/li>\n<p>The additions contain discrepancies that make it clear they were never part of the original Esther. These can be seen as follows:<\/p>\n<p>1:19 and 8:8 compare 16:17<\/p>\n<p>2:15-18 compare 14:15<\/p>\n<p>2:16-19 compare 11:3–12:1<\/p>\n<p>2:21-23 and 6:3-4 compare 12:5<\/p>\n<p>3:1 compare 16:10<\/p>\n<p>3:5 compare 12:6<\/p>\n<p>5:4-8 compare 14:7<\/p>\n<p>7:10 compare 16:18<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>9:20-32 compare 16:22<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT) and Old Latin texts contained the additions in the text of Esther at the places indicated. Jerome, a fourth-century Christian scholar, put the additions as an appendix in the Vulgate, his Latin translation of the Bible.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","summary_en":"ESTHER, Additions to Six passages of about 105 verses added to the Hebrew text of Esther. The Additions to Esther was apparently the work of a Jewish writer eager to supply a spiritual and universal note that was thought to be lacking in the book. Some scholars assert that the additions were originally written in Greek, while others maintain they were translated from Hebrew or possibly Aramaic. The date cannot be determined with certainty, although 100 BC is generally suggested, which would p...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}