Exod 18
1 Ietro, preotul Madianului, socrul lui Moise, a aflat tot ce făcuse Dumnezeu pentru Moise şi poporul Său Israel; a aflat că Domnul scosese pe Israel din Egipt.
2 Ietro, socrul lui Moise, a luat pe Sefora, nevasta lui Moise, care fusese trimeasă acasă.
3 A luat şi pe cei doi fii ai Seforei; unul se numea Gherşom (Străin), căci Moise zisese: ,,Locuiesc ca străin într-o ţară străină,``
4 iar celalt se numea Eliezer (Ajutorul lui Dumnezeu), căci zisese: ,,Dumnezeul tatălui meu mi-a ajutat, şi m-a scăpat de sabia lui Faraon.``
5 Ietro, socrul lui Moise, a venit cu fiii şi nevasta lui Moise în pustie unde tăbăra el, la muntele lui Dumnezeu.
6 A trimes vorbă lui Moise să-i spună: ,,Eu, socrul tău Ietro, vin la tine cu nevastă-ta şi cu cei doi fii ai tăi.``
7 Moise a ieşit înaintea socrului său, s-a aruncat cu faţa la pământ, şi l-a sărutat. S-au întrebat unul pe altul de sănătate, şi au intrat în cortul lui Moise.
8 Moise a istorisit socrului său tot ce făcuse Domnul împotriva lui Faraon şi împotriva Egiptului, din pricina lui Israel, toate suferinţele cari veniseră peste ei pe drum, şi cum îi izbăvise Domnul din ele.
9 Ietro s-a bucurat pentru tot binele, pe care-l făcuse Domnul lui Israel, şi pentru că-l izbăvise din mâna Egiptenilor.
10 Şi Ietro a zis: ,,Binecuvântat să fie Domnul, care v-a izbăvit din mâna Egiptenilor şi din mâna lui Faraon, El, care a izbăvit poporul din mâna Egiptenilor!
11 Cunosc acum că Domnul este mai mare decât toţi dumnezeii; căci în lucrul în care s-au purtat cu trufie, El a fost mai pesus de ei.``
12 Ietro, socrul lui Moise, a adus lui Dumnezeu o ardere de tot şi o jertfă de mâncare. Aaron şi toţi bătrânii lui Israel au venit şi au luat parte la masă cu socrul lui Moise, înaintea lui Dumnezeu.
13 A doua zi, Moise s-a aşezat să judece poporul; şi poporul a stat înaintea lui de dimineaţa până seara.
14 Socrul lui Moise a văzut tot ce făcea el pentru popor, şi a zis: ,,Ce faci tu acolo cu poporul acela? De ce stai singur, şi tot poporul stă înaintea ta, de dimineaţa până seara?``
15 Moise a răspuns socrului său: ,,Poporul vine la mine ca să ceară sfat lui Dumnezeu.
16 Când au vreo treabă, vin la mine; eu judec între ei, şi fac cunoscut poruncile lui Dumnezeu şi legile Lui.``
17 Socrul lui Moise i-a zis: ,,Ce faci tu nu este bine.
18 Te istoveşti singur, şi vei istovi şi poporul acesta, care este cu tine; căci lucrul este mai pe sus de puterile tale şi nu-l vei putea face singur.
19 Acum ascultă glasul meu; am să-ţi dau un sfat, şi Dumnezeu va fi cu tine! Fii tâlmaciul poporului înaintea lui Dumnezeu, şi du pricinile înaintea lui Dumnezeu.
20 Învaţă-i poruncile şi legile; şi arată-le calea, pe care trebuie s-o urmeze şi ce trebuie să facă.``
21 Alege din tot poporul oameni destoinici, temători de Dumnezeu, oameni de încredere, vrăjmaşi ai lăcomiei; pune-i peste popor drept căpetenii peste o mie, căpetenii peste o sută, căpetenii peste cinci zeci şi căpetenii peste zece.
22 Ei să judece poporul în tot timpul; să aducă înaintea ta toate pricinile însemnate, iar pricinile cele mai mici, să le judece ei înşişi. În felul acesta îţi vei uşura sarcina, căci o vor purta şi ei împreună cu tine.
23 Dacă vei face lucrul acesta, şi dacă Dumnezeu îţi va porunci aşa, vei putea face faţă lucrurilor, şi tot poporul acesta va ajunge fericit la locul lui.``
24 Moise a ascultat sfatul socrului său, şi a făcut tot ce spusese el.
25 Moise a ales oameni destoinici din tot Israelul, şi i-a pus căpetenii ale poporului, căpetenii peste o mie, căpetenii peste o sută, căpetenii peste cincizeci şi căpetenii peste zece.
26 Ei judecau poporul în tot timpul; aduceau înaintea lui Moise pricinile grele, iar toate pricinile mici le judecau ei înşişi.
27 Apoi Moise a trimes pe socrul său în ţara lui.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":40946,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68572,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96198,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123824,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2480,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Arabs Arabia","title_en":"Arabs Arabia","content_ro":"<h3>ARABIA, ARABS<\/h3>\n<p>Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States.<\/p>\n<p>Classical geographers such as Strabo followed the example set by the geographer Ptolemy in dividing Arabia into three divisions: <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Rocky Arabia) in the northwest, which included Sinai, Edom, Moab, and Transjordan; <em>Arabia Deserta,<\/em> which included the Syrian Desert; and <em>Arabia Felix<\/em> (Happy Arabia), which included the southern section of the Arabian peninsula.<\/p>\n<p>When “Arabia” is used as a geographical term in the Bible, it sometimes includes both northern and southern sections. For example, 2 Chronicles 9:14 says that the kings of Arabia brought gold to Solomon as tribute. At other times the name Arabia refers only to the northwestern <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> For example, Paul said that after his conversion he went away to the deserts of Arabia (Gal 1:17) and referred to Mt Sinai (4:25), which is in that northwestern area. Many places named in the Bible as being in Arabia are more specifically in <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> Such sites include Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, the Hazor of Jeremiah 49:28-33, Massa, Mesha, and Midian. Hazarmaveth, Ophir, Sabtah, Sephar, Sheba, and Uzal are in the south. Havilah and Parvaim are perhaps in the northeast, and authorities debate the location of Seba. The land of Uz, mentioned in the book of Job, is considered by many scholars to be located in the area between Edom and northern Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia is thought by many to be one of the hottest countries. In some sections that conception is correct. The peninsula lies between seas on the east and west, but those bodies of water are too small to break the climatic continuity of the dry African-Asian continental masses. There are, however, some regions that enjoy temperate and semitropical climate. In the south much of the land is sufficiently elevated to avoid the intensity of tropical heat. The lowlands along the coast have a semitropical environment. Fogs and dews are common in the humid regions, but over inner Arabia the sun shines the year round, obscured only by an occasional sandstorm or an even rarer rain shower.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia has long been desired for natural resources. Pharaohs of the first dynasty operated turquoise mines in Sinai, and the gold of Ophir and the frankincense and myrrh of South Arabia were world renowned. The queen of Sheba brought such precious spices to Solomon (1 Kgs 10:2, 10), and trade between Israel and Arabia flourished. Solomon had a seaport at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea for his opulent commerce with Ophir (1 Kgs 9:26-28). King Jehoshaphat of Judah, who also received tribute from Arabs (2 Chr 17:11), tried to revive trade with Ophir but failed (1 Kgs 22:48).<\/p>\n<p>Tribes associated with Arabia played a significant role in biblical history. The Ishmaelites or Midianites who took Joseph to Egypt (Gn 37:25-36) were Arabians. So were the Amalekites who waged war with Moses in the wilderness of <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Ex 17:8-16). Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, was a Midianite (Ex 18:1). King Uzziah of Judah fought against Arabs (2 Chr 26:7); the Meunites mentioned in the same verse were probably also from Arabia. Geshem the Arab, known also from secular inscriptions, resisted the rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 2:19; 6:1, 6).<\/p>\n<p>Kedar was an important North Arab tribe condemned in Isaiah’s message about Arabia (Is 21:13-17). Jeremiah also spoke against it, prophesying its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered it (Jer 49:28-33). Close allies of the tribe of Kedar were the Nabatean Arabs (Is 60:7), who figure prominently in later history. They captured Petra, fulfilling the prophecy of Obadiah about Edom. References to Arabia and the Arabs in the Apocrypha and NT concern mostly the Nabatean Arabs (1 Macc 11:16; Gal 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In southern Arabia four kingdoms developed: the Sabean, Minean, Qataban, and Hadramaut. Around 115 <span>BC<\/span> the Himyarite kingdom gained control of southern Arabia, keeping it until about <span>AD<\/span> 300. Three centuries later the Arabian peninsula witnessed the birth of Islam.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARABIA, ARABS<\/h3>\n<p>Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States.<\/p>\n<p>Classical geographers such as Strabo followed the example set by the geographer Ptolemy in dividing Arabia into three divisions: <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Rocky Arabia) in the northwest, which included Sinai, Edom, Moab, and Transjordan; <em>Arabia Deserta,<\/em> which included the Syrian Desert; and <em>Arabia Felix<\/em> (Happy Arabia), which included the southern section of the Arabian peninsula.<\/p>\n<p>When “Arabia” is used as a geographical term in the Bible, it sometimes includes both northern and southern sections. For example, 2 Chronicles 9:14 says that the kings of Arabia brought gold to Solomon as tribute. At other times the name Arabia refers only to the northwestern <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> For example, Paul said that after his conversion he went away to the deserts of Arabia (Gal 1:17) and referred to Mt Sinai (4:25), which is in that northwestern area. Many places named in the Bible as being in Arabia are more specifically in <em>Arabia Petraea.<\/em> Such sites include Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, the Hazor of Jeremiah 49:28-33, Massa, Mesha, and Midian. Hazarmaveth, Ophir, Sabtah, Sephar, Sheba, and Uzal are in the south. Havilah and Parvaim are perhaps in the northeast, and authorities debate the location of Seba. The land of Uz, mentioned in the book of Job, is considered by many scholars to be located in the area between Edom and northern Arabia.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia is thought by many to be one of the hottest countries. In some sections that conception is correct. The peninsula lies between seas on the east and west, but those bodies of water are too small to break the climatic continuity of the dry African-Asian continental masses. There are, however, some regions that enjoy temperate and semitropical climate. In the south much of the land is sufficiently elevated to avoid the intensity of tropical heat. The lowlands along the coast have a semitropical environment. Fogs and dews are common in the humid regions, but over inner Arabia the sun shines the year round, obscured only by an occasional sandstorm or an even rarer rain shower.<\/p>\n<p>Arabia has long been desired for natural resources. Pharaohs of the first dynasty operated turquoise mines in Sinai, and the gold of Ophir and the frankincense and myrrh of South Arabia were world renowned. The queen of Sheba brought such precious spices to Solomon (1 Kgs 10:2, 10), and trade between Israel and Arabia flourished. Solomon had a seaport at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea for his opulent commerce with Ophir (1 Kgs 9:26-28). King Jehoshaphat of Judah, who also received tribute from Arabs (2 Chr 17:11), tried to revive trade with Ophir but failed (1 Kgs 22:48).<\/p>\n<p>Tribes associated with Arabia played a significant role in biblical history. The Ishmaelites or Midianites who took Joseph to Egypt (Gn 37:25-36) were Arabians. So were the Amalekites who waged war with Moses in the wilderness of <em>Arabia Petraea<\/em> (Ex 17:8-16). Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, was a Midianite (Ex 18:1). King Uzziah of Judah fought against Arabs (2 Chr 26:7); the Meunites mentioned in the same verse were probably also from Arabia. Geshem the Arab, known also from secular inscriptions, resisted the rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 2:19; 6:1, 6).<\/p>\n<p>Kedar was an important North Arab tribe condemned in Isaiah’s message about Arabia (Is 21:13-17). Jeremiah also spoke against it, prophesying its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered it (Jer 49:28-33). Close allies of the tribe of Kedar were the Nabatean Arabs (Is 60:7), who figure prominently in later history. They captured Petra, fulfilling the prophecy of Obadiah about Edom. References to Arabia and the Arabs in the Apocrypha and NT concern mostly the Nabatean Arabs (1 Macc 11:16; Gal 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>In southern Arabia four kingdoms developed: the Sabean, Minean, Qataban, and Hadramaut. Around 115 <span>BC<\/span> the Himyarite kingdom gained control of southern Arabia, keeping it until about <span>AD<\/span> 300. Three centuries later the Arabian peninsula witnessed the birth of Islam.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARABIA, ARABS Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States. Classical geographe...","summary_en":"ARABIA, ARABS Peninsula in southwestern Asia, surrounded by sea on three sides and by the Fertile Crescent on the fourth. Politically, the Arabian peninsula is bounded on the north by the modern Hashemite kingdom of Jordan and by Iraq and on the south by the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf forms its eastern boundary and the Red Sea its western boundary. Its area is just over a million square miles (1,609,000 square kilometers), about one-third the area of the United States. Classical geographe...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11474,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hobab","title_en":"Hobab","content_ro":"<h3>HOBAB<\/h3>\n<p>Name associated with Moses’ father-in-law (Nm 10:29; Jgs 4:11, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), who was a priest of Midian (Ex 18:1) and ancestor of the Kenites (Jgs 4:11). He is usually called Jethro (Ex 3:1; 4:18; 18:1-12), but also Reuel (Ex 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>The confusion surrounding the name Hobab has never been satisfactorily resolved. Judges 4:11 seems to identify Hobab with Jethro; there is some manuscript evidence for adding “Hobab” to “the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-law” in Judges 1:16, and to the mention of Reuel in Exodus 2:18. But Hobab could be Jethro’s son, on one reading of Numbers 10:29a: “Hobab the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses’ father-in-law.” In this passage Moses requests that Hobab accompany Israel as guide and adviser in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jethro.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOBAB<\/h3>\n<p>Name associated with Moses’ father-in-law (Nm 10:29; Jgs 4:11, <span>nlt<\/span> mg), who was a priest of Midian (Ex 18:1) and ancestor of the Kenites (Jgs 4:11). He is usually called Jethro (Ex 3:1; 4:18; 18:1-12), but also Reuel (Ex 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>The confusion surrounding the name Hobab has never been satisfactorily resolved. Judges 4:11 seems to identify Hobab with Jethro; there is some manuscript evidence for adding “Hobab” to “the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-law” in Judges 1:16, and to the mention of Reuel in Exodus 2:18. But Hobab could be Jethro’s son, on one reading of Numbers 10:29a: “Hobab the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses’ father-in-law.” In this passage Moses requests that Hobab accompany Israel as guide and adviser in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jethro.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOBAB Name associated with Moses’ father-in-law (Nm 10:29; Jgs 4:11, nlt mg), who was a priest of Midian (Ex 18:1) and ancestor of the Kenites (Jgs 4:11). He is usually called Jethro (Ex 3:1; 4:18; 18:1-12), but also Reuel (Ex 2:18). The confusion surrounding the name Hobab has never been satisfactorily resolved. Judges 4:11 seems to identify Hobab with Jethro; there is some manuscript evidence for adding “Hobab” to “the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-law” in Judges 1:16, and to the mention of Reue...","summary_en":"HOBAB Name associated with Moses’ father-in-law (Nm 10:29; Jgs 4:11, nlt mg), who was a priest of Midian (Ex 18:1) and ancestor of the Kenites (Jgs 4:11). He is usually called Jethro (Ex 3:1; 4:18; 18:1-12), but also Reuel (Ex 2:18). The confusion surrounding the name Hobab has never been satisfactorily resolved. Judges 4:11 seems to identify Hobab with Jethro; there is some manuscript evidence for adding “Hobab” to “the Kenite, Moses’ father-in-law” in Judges 1:16, and to the mention of Reue...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19739,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jethro","title_en":"Jethro","content_ro":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","summary_en":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","summary_en":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","summary_en":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","summary_en":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126695,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:1-12<\/strong> Moses had apparently <em>sent his wife<\/em> and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his <em>father-in-law<\/em>. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. <em>Jethro<\/em> now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","summary_en":"18:1-12 Moses had apparently sent his wife and children back from Egypt at some point to stay with his father-in-law. In the intense confrontation with Pharaoh, Moses might have been afraid for their lives. Jethro now came to meet Moses and the Israelites, bringing Moses’ family with him (18:2-6). In the context of the visit, Moses gave him a report, and Jethro was brought to faith through the testimony of the Lord’s work.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":39480,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zipporah","title_en":"Zipporah","content_ro":"<h3>ZIPPORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Wife of Moses and mother of his sons Gershom and Eliezer (Ex 2:21). Though she is listed as the daughter of Reuel (v 18), Reuel was probably the father of Hobab (Nm 10:29; also called Jethro, Ex 3:1; 4:18), who in turn was the father of Zipporah. Zipporah circumcised Gershom to prevent Moses’ death prior to his return to Egypt (Ex 4:25). Apparently at that point Zipporah and the children left Moses and went back to live with her father, returning later during the wilderness wanderings (18:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIPPORAH<\/h3>\n<p>Wife of Moses and mother of his sons Gershom and Eliezer (Ex 2:21). Though she is listed as the daughter of Reuel (v 18), Reuel was probably the father of Hobab (Nm 10:29; also called Jethro, Ex 3:1; 4:18), who in turn was the father of Zipporah. Zipporah circumcised Gershom to prevent Moses’ death prior to his return to Egypt (Ex 4:25). Apparently at that point Zipporah and the children left Moses and went back to live with her father, returning later during the wilderness wanderings (18:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIPPORAH Wife of Moses and mother of his sons Gershom and Eliezer (Ex 2:21). Though she is listed as the daughter of Reuel (v 18), Reuel was probably the father of Hobab (Nm 10:29; also called Jethro, Ex 3:1; 4:18), who in turn was the father of Zipporah. Zipporah circumcised Gershom to prevent Moses’ death prior to his return to Egypt (Ex 4:25). Apparently at that point Zipporah and the children left Moses and went back to live with her father, returning later during the wilderness wandering...","summary_en":"ZIPPORAH Wife of Moses and mother of his sons Gershom and Eliezer (Ex 2:21). Though she is listed as the daughter of Reuel (v 18), Reuel was probably the father of Hobab (Nm 10:29; also called Jethro, Ex 3:1; 4:18), who in turn was the father of Zipporah. Zipporah circumcised Gershom to prevent Moses’ death prior to his return to Egypt (Ex 4:25). Apparently at that point Zipporah and the children left Moses and went back to live with her father, returning later during the wilderness wandering...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":13671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gershom","title_en":"Gershom","content_ro":"<h3>GERSHOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Moses’ son by Zipporah, born in Midian during Moses’ exile from Egypt (Ex 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chr 23:15-16).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jonathan’s father. He and his sons were priests to Dan’s tribe. The Danites set up a graven image to worship and appointed Jonathan to be their priest (Jgs 18:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Gershon, Levi’s oldest son (1 Chr 6:1, 16-17, 20, 43; 23:6-7). <em>See<\/em> Gershon, Gershonites.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Shebuel, the chief officer over the temple treasury during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:24).<\/li>\n<li>5. Phinehas’s son who returned with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:2).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GERSHOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Moses’ son by Zipporah, born in Midian during Moses’ exile from Egypt (Ex 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chr 23:15-16).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jonathan’s father. He and his sons were priests to Dan’s tribe. The Danites set up a graven image to worship and appointed Jonathan to be their priest (Jgs 18:30).<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Gershon, Levi’s oldest son (1 Chr 6:1, 16-17, 20, 43; 23:6-7). <em>See<\/em> Gershon, Gershonites.<\/li>\n<li>4. Ancestor of Shebuel, the chief officer over the temple treasury during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:24).<\/li>\n<li>5. Phinehas’s son who returned with Ezra after the exile (Ezr 8:2).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GERSHOM 1. Moses’ son by Zipporah, born in Midian during Moses’ exile from Egypt (Ex 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chr 23:15-16). 2. Jonathan’s father. He and his sons were priests to Dan’s tribe. The Danites set up a graven image to worship and appointed Jonathan to be their priest (Jgs 18:30). 3. Alternate spelling of Gershon, Levi’s oldest son (1 Chr 6:1, 16-17, 20, 43; 23:6-7). See Gershon, Gershonites. 4. Ancestor of Shebuel, the chief officer over the temple treasury during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:24)....","summary_en":"GERSHOM 1. Moses’ son by Zipporah, born in Midian during Moses’ exile from Egypt (Ex 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chr 23:15-16). 2. Jonathan’s father. He and his sons were priests to Dan’s tribe. The Danites set up a graven image to worship and appointed Jonathan to be their priest (Jgs 18:30). 3. Alternate spelling of Gershon, Levi’s oldest son (1 Chr 6:1, 16-17, 20, 43; 23:6-7). See Gershon, Gershonites. 4. Ancestor of Shebuel, the chief officer over the temple treasury during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:24)....","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":10549,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eliezer","title_en":"Eliezer","content_ro":"<h3>ELIEZER<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Native of Damascus and Abraham’s servant, who according to custom was the adopted heir before Ishmael and Isaac were born (Gn 15:2).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Moses and Zipporah’s second son (Ex 18:4; 1 Chr 23:15-17).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Benjamite and Becher’s son (1 Chr 7:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of the seven priests who blew a trumpet before the ark of the covenant when David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Zichri’s son and a chief officer in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Son of Dodavahu of Mareshah, who prophesied against King Jehoshaphat of Judah because of his alliance with Ahaziah, king of Israel (2 Chr 20:37).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the leaders sent by Ezra to Iddo at Casiphia to request Levites for the house of God (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li> 8, 9, 10. Three men of Israel—a priest, Levite, and Israelite—who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18, 23, 31).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ancestor of Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELIEZER<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Native of Damascus and Abraham’s servant, who according to custom was the adopted heir before Ishmael and Isaac were born (Gn 15:2).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Moses and Zipporah’s second son (Ex 18:4; 1 Chr 23:15-17).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Benjamite and Becher’s son (1 Chr 7:8).<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of the seven priests who blew a trumpet before the ark of the covenant when David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Zichri’s son and a chief officer in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 27:16).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Son of Dodavahu of Mareshah, who prophesied against King Jehoshaphat of Judah because of his alliance with Ahaziah, king of Israel (2 Chr 20:37).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the leaders sent by Ezra to Iddo at Casiphia to request Levites for the house of God (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li> 8, 9, 10. Three men of Israel—a priest, Levite, and Israelite—who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:18, 23, 31).<\/li>\n<li>11. Ancestor of Christ (Lk 3:29). <em>See<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELIEZER 1. Native of Damascus and Abraham’s servant, who according to custom was the adopted heir before Ishmael and Isaac were born (Gn 15:2). 2. Moses and Zipporah’s second son (Ex 18:4; 1 Chr 23:15-17). 3. Benjamite and Becher’s son (1 Chr 7:8). 4. One of the seven priests who blew a trumpet before the ark of the covenant when David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24). 5. Zichri’s son and a chief officer in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 27:16). 6. Son of Dodavahu of Mareshah, who prophesied agains...","summary_en":"ELIEZER 1. Native of Damascus and Abraham’s servant, who according to custom was the adopted heir before Ishmael and Isaac were born (Gn 15:2). 2. Moses and Zipporah’s second son (Ex 18:4; 1 Chr 23:15-17). 3. Benjamite and Becher’s son (1 Chr 7:8). 4. One of the seven priests who blew a trumpet before the ark of the covenant when David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24). 5. Zichri’s son and a chief officer in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 27:16). 6. Son of Dodavahu of Mareshah, who prophesied agains...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26332,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":43818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","summary_en":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","summary_en":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99070,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","summary_en":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126696,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:7<\/strong> <em>bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare:<\/em> These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","summary_en":"18:7 bowed low and kissed him. They asked about each other’s welfare: These were all typical customs of greeting in that society.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":60178,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60231,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Exodus as History","title_en":"The Exodus as History","content_ro":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","summary_en":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87804,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87857,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Exodus as History","title_en":"The Exodus as History","content_ro":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","summary_en":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115430,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115483,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Exodus as History","title_en":"The Exodus as History","content_ro":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","summary_en":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143056,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardship in Following God","title_en":"Hardship in Following God","content_ro":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardship in Following God<\/h3>\n<p>Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrews was purely strategic. He worried that this growing sector of the population would cause trouble for him (Exod 1:8-22). In chapter 5, the situation is different. Moses and Aaron had rallied the people’s hopes that their God would soon rescue them (4:29-31). During their initial encounter with Pharaoh, Moses and Aaron confronted him with the reality of God’s sovereign rule (5:1-3). Not surprisingly, Pharaoh considered this an affront to his own sovereignty and reacted strongly against the Israelites (5:4-21).<\/p>\n<p>When God’s Kingdom clashes with God’s enemies, there is often conflict and hardship for God’s people. We should not be surprised. Believers have changed allegiance from the realm of darkness to the realm of light (Col 1:11-14), and those who rule in the realm of darkness will certainly not let us leave their power without a fight. We must stand firm in our faith, knowing that God will secure the final victory on our behalf (Exod 6:1-8; see also Matt 5:11-12; John 16:33; Rom 16:20; Eph 6:10-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 39:6-20; Exod 5:1-23; 18:8; 1 Kgs 18:3-4; 19:1-10; Pss 6:6-7; 22:11-18; Matt 5:11-12; Mark 8:34; John 15:20; 16:33; Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 11:23-29; Eph 6:10-18; 2 Tim 3:12; Heb 10:32-36; 1 Pet 1:6-7; 3:9-17; 4:12-19<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","summary_en":"Hardship in Following God Sometimes people are urged to accept Christ because “he will solve your problems.” But Christ did not promise to solve all of people’s problems. In fact, he repeatedly warned people to consider what it would cost to follow him (see, e.g., Luke 14:28), and he pointed out the hardships that would come into their lives as a result of choosing to follow him (see, e.g., Mark 8:34). Exodus 5 gives us a case study: Pharaoh’s earlier enslavement and persecution of the Hebrew...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143109,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Exodus as History","title_en":"The Exodus as History","content_ro":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Exodus as History<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 <span>BC<\/span> to Rome in <span>AD<\/span> 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, and who is guiding its events to realize his purposes. How did the Israelites come to their unique concept of reality? Was it not through encounters with the true God in actual events of history? The most reasonable explanation for the distinctiveness of Israel’s understanding is that, as the Bible describes, God broke into their experience and showed himself to them in events that have been recorded as history.<\/p>\n<p>There is no report in Egyptian texts of the events the Bible describes, which has raised suspicions for many. But it would have been highly unusual at that time for a world power to report on their defeat at the hands of a group of slaves. The Bible’s historical reporting, with its inclusion of stories of Israel’s own disasters, is unlike anything else found in the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeology cannot prove that certain events happened, but it can demonstrate that conditions would have permitted the events to occur, and that is true of the book of Exodus and of the Bible in general. Egyptian records and archaeology neither confirm nor contradict the Bible’s record. However, the text of Exodus shows an intimate familiarity with Egyptian thought and culture, just as a historical record would.<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the Bible believed they were reporting actual events, and they expected their readers to understand them as such. Exodus 18:8-12 gives the first example of someone who put his faith in God because of a testimony to what had actually happened. Faith in God and in his inspired word, the Bible, has a strong historical basis. God has entered into history to act for the salvation of humanity. His acts include Israel’s exodus from Egypt and climax in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 14:15–15:21; 18:8-12; Judg 11:12-27; Acts 7:1-56<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","summary_en":"The Exodus as History Israel’s understanding of reality was radically different from that of all other ancient cultures. All of the other major cultures surrounding Israel—from Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 2000 BC to Rome in AD 200—reached their view of reality by observing nature. They concluded that there were many gods and that all events go in unending cycles. Ancient Israel, by contrast, believed that there is one God who is distinct from the world, who made the world with purpose, a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":11459,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\n<p>Theologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\n<p>The English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>Various other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\n<p>Although such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\n<p>Moses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, <span>rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>If one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 <span>BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\n<p>This view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 <span>BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Some events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 <span>BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Not until about 1580 <span>BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 <span>BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 <span>BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\n<p>The God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the <span>Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (<span>rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>That promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\n<p>A further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\n<p>As an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>While their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\n<p>Assured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\n<p>Chapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n<p> The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>The nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\n<p>But once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the <span>Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\n<p>The God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\n<p>All of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\n<p>The Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\n<p>The judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\n<p>After the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Once more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\n<p>Now that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":40940,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68566,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96192,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123818,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14407,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gods and Goddesses","title_en":"Gods and Goddesses","content_ro":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GODS AND GODDESSES<\/h3>\n<p>Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopotamia, a center of idol worship, is the longest: Adrammelech and Anammelech (2 Kgs 17:31), Bel (also known as Marduk, Is 46:1; Jer 50:2; 51:44), Kaiwan (Am 5:26), Nebo or Nabu (Is 46:1), Nergal (2 Kgs 17:30), Nisroch (19:37; Is 37:38), Rephan (Acts 7:43), Sakkuth (Am 5:26), Succoth-benoth (2 Kgs 17:30), Tammuz (Ez 8:14), and Tartak (2 Kgs 17:31). The Syrians were devoted to Ashima (v 30) and Rimmon (5:18), who was also worshiped under the compound name Hadad-rimmon (Zec 12:11). Israel’s eastern neighbors, Ammon and Moab, worshiped Milcom or Molech (1 Kgs 11:5-7, 33; 2 Kgs 23:13) and Chemosh, respectively, although the Moabites also worshiped a local manifestation of Baal (Nm 25:3-5). The Philistine gods were Dagon and Baal-zebub (2 Kgs 1:2-3, 6, 16), who is the equivalent of the NT Beelzebul (Mt 12:24; Lk 11:15). One Canaanite god, Baal, and two Canaanite goddesses, Asherah and Ashtoreth, are mentioned frequently in the OT; Ashtoreth was the same as the Mesopotamian Ishtar, also known as the “Queen of Heaven” (Jer 7:18; 44:17-19, 25). The gods of Egypt are represented by only two names in the Bible: Amon (Jer 46:25) and Apis (v 15). Nibhaz (2 Kgs 17:31) was probably an Elamite god.<\/p>\n<p>At least three Greco-Roman deities are mentioned in the NT: the Greek goddess Artemis (Acts 19:24-28, 34-35), known as Diana by the Romans, and the Greek gods Zeus and Hermes (Acts 14:12-13), known as Jupiter and Mercury, respectively, by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible clearly teaches that the gods of the nations have no objective reality (Jer 2:11), even though their worshipers sincerely believe that they actually exist (v 28). But the Lord proclaims that “they are no gods,” (Jer 2:11; 16:20) or “gods that are not gods” (5:7, <span>niv<\/span>). The NT further declares of idols that “an idol has no real existence” (1 Cor 8:4) and that “gods made with hands are not gods” (Acts 19:26). It is not surprising, then, that when the Israelites began to encounter other nations in significant ways—that is, as early as the time of the exodus—they were told repeatedly that the Lord is greater than all other gods (Ex 15:11; 18:11; Dt 10:17; 1 Chr 16:25; 2 Chr 2:5; Pss 86:8; 95:3; 96:4-5; 97:7-9; 135:5, 136:2; Dn 2:47; Zep 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Such so-called gods were not worthy of Israel’s attention or veneration. Since there is only one God, other gods could not claim and did not deserve Israel’s worship (Ex 20:3; Dt 5:7). The Hebrew language did not even have a word for “goddess” and therefore had to use its word for “god” to express that concept (see 1 Kgs 11:5, 33). The Israelites were to make no images (Ex 20:4, 23; Lv 19:4; Dt 5:8) or mention (Ex 23:13; Jos 23:7) of the gods and goddesses of their heathen neighbors.<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite all God’s warnings, idolatry was Israel’s besetting sin from the earliest times. During the patriarchal period, God’s people were attracted to the “household idols” (Gn 31:32) of their relatives, and they continued to worship other gods throughout most of their history (Ex 32:1-4, 8, 23, 31; 34:15; Hos 11:2). Idolatry eventually led to the destruction of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:7-18) in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and of the southern kingdom (2 Kgs 22:17; cf. Dt 29:25-28) in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. During their time of exile in Babylonia, the Jewish people saw idolatry at its worst and turned away from it, but their ancestors could have avoided untold agony if they had simply followed the example of Joshua: “As for me and my house, we will serve the <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jos 24:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Idols, Idolatry; High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","summary_en":"GODS AND GODDESSES Male and female deities worshiped by pagans. Although the Bible teaches that there is only one God (Is 45:18, 21-22; Mk 12:32), heathen people in ancient times quickly developed a belief in large numbers of so-called gods (Jer 10:11) and goddesses. Eventually each nation created and worshiped its own deities, usually more than one. Many of these “foreign gods” (1 Sm 7:3) are named in the Bible, and in most cases we are told to what nation each belonged. The list from Mesopo...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19744,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jethro","title_en":"Jethro","content_ro":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","summary_en":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":40941,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68567,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96193,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123819,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>AARON<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Amram, a descendant of the Kohath family of Levi’s tribe (Ex 6:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his wife, Elisheba, had four sons (Ex 6:23), who were to follow him in the priesthood (Lv 1:5). Two of them, Nadab and Abihu, violated God’s instructions by performing a sacrilegious act while burning incense and were burned to death as a result (Lv 10:1-5). The priesthood was then passed on through the other two sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, who also sometimes failed to carry out God’s instructions precisely (10:6-20).<\/p>\n<p>Aaron’s prominence in the events of the exodus arose partly from the fact that he was Moses’ brother. When Moses tried to avoid becoming Israel’s leader on the grounds of having a speech impediment, Aaron’s ability as a speaker was recognized and used by God (Ex 4:10-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EventsofAaronsLife\">Events of Aaron’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people were slaves in Egypt at the beginning of Aaron’s life. Raised as an Egyptian by one of the pharaoh’s daughters, Moses had fled into the Midian Desert after killing a cruel Egyptian taskmaster (Ex 1–2). When God sent Moses back as a liberator (chs 3–4), he also sent Aaron out to meet Moses in the desert (4:27). Moses was a stranger to his people after so many years of exile, so Aaron made contact with Israel’s elders for him (4:29-31). When Moses and Aaron went to see the pharaoh, God told the Egyptian monarch through the two of them to let the Israelites go (Ex 5:1). When the pharaoh made life even more miserable for the Hebrew slaves, God began to show his power to the Egyptian ruler through a series of miracles (chs 5–12). God performed the first three miracles through Aaron, using a rod (probably a shepherd’s staff). The pharaoh had his palace sorcerers do similar tricks. After God brought a plague of gnats (<span>kjv<\/span> “lice”) over all Egypt, the Egyptian magicians admitted defeat and said, “This is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then God brought on more plagues through Moses, culminating in the deaths of all the Egyptians’ firstborn sons. Aaron was with Moses (12:1-28) when God revealed how he would “pass over” the properly marked homes of the Israelites, sparing their children on the night the Egyptian children died. That event was the origin of the Passover feast still observed by Jews today (13:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>After God led the Israelites to safety and destroyed the pursuing Egyptians, Aaron participated with Moses in governing the people on their long wilderness journey to the Promised Land (Ex 16:1-6). Later, battling against Amalek’s army, Aaron helped hold up Moses’ weary arms in prayer to maintain God’s blessing (17:8-16). Although always subordinate to Moses, Aaron seems to have been recognized as an important leader (18:12). God summoned him to be with Moses when God gave the law on Mt Sinai (19:24). Aaron was among the representatives of the people who ratified God’s statutes in the Book of the Covenant (24:1-8). Aaron went with those leaders partway up the holy mountain and saw the vision of the God of Israel (24:9-10). With Hur, he was left in charge when Moses was with God on the mountaintop (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>Moses was gone for over a month, and in a moment of weakness, Aaron gave in to the people’s request for an idol to worship. He melted down their gold ornaments to make a golden image of a calf (Ex 32:1-4). (The Israelites had probably been influenced in Egypt by the cult of Apis, a fertility god in the form of a bull.) At first, Aaron seemed to think he might be doing something acceptable to God (v 5), but things got out of hand and a drunken sex orgy took place around the idol (v 6). God was angry enough to destroy the people, but Moses interceded, reminding God of his promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants (Ex 32:7-14). Moses furiously confronted Aaron about the immorality and idolatry, which Aaron blamed on the people without admitting any guilt of his own (vv 21-24). Although the idolators were punished by death (Ex 32:25-28) and the whole camp by a plague (v 35), Aaron was evidently not punished. In a retelling of the events, Moses said that Aaron was in great danger but was spared because he had prayed for him (Dt 9:20).<\/p>\n<p>In their second year of nomadic wilderness life, Aaron helped Moses carry out a census (Nm 1:1-3, 17-18). Eventually, Aaron may have become jealous of Moses’ position of leadership, for Miriam and Aaron began to slander their brother, even though the elderly Moses was by then more humble than any man on earth (Nm 12:1-4). God’s anger toward the two was averted by Moses’ prayer, although Miriam did suffer for her sin (12:5-15). Aaron again seems to have escaped punishment entirely. With Moses, Aaron opposed a rebellion at Kadesh (14:1-5). He stood with Moses against a later revolt (ch 16). After a final incident at Meribah, where the Israelites almost revolted again, God accused Moses and Aaron of having failed to take him at his word and denied them entry into the Promised Land (20:1-12). Aaron died at the age of 123 on Mt Hor, after Moses had removed his elaborate priestly garments and put them on Aaron’s son Eleazar (Nm 20:23-29; 33:38-39).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Exodus, The; Wilderness Wanderings; Priests and Levites; Levi, Tribe of; Aaron’s Rod.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AARON<\/h3>\n<p>Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Amram, a descendant of the Kohath family of Levi’s tribe (Ex 6:18-20).<\/p>\n<p>Aaron and his wife, Elisheba, had four sons (Ex 6:23), who were to follow him in the priesthood (Lv 1:5). Two of them, Nadab and Abihu, violated God’s instructions by performing a sacrilegious act while burning incense and were burned to death as a result (Lv 10:1-5). The priesthood was then passed on through the other two sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, who also sometimes failed to carry out God’s instructions precisely (10:6-20).<\/p>\n<p>Aaron’s prominence in the events of the exodus arose partly from the fact that he was Moses’ brother. When Moses tried to avoid becoming Israel’s leader on the grounds of having a speech impediment, Aaron’s ability as a speaker was recognized and used by God (Ex 4:10-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EventsofAaronsLife\">Events of Aaron’s Life<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew people were slaves in Egypt at the beginning of Aaron’s life. Raised as an Egyptian by one of the pharaoh’s daughters, Moses had fled into the Midian Desert after killing a cruel Egyptian taskmaster (Ex 1–2). When God sent Moses back as a liberator (chs 3–4), he also sent Aaron out to meet Moses in the desert (4:27). Moses was a stranger to his people after so many years of exile, so Aaron made contact with Israel’s elders for him (4:29-31). When Moses and Aaron went to see the pharaoh, God told the Egyptian monarch through the two of them to let the Israelites go (Ex 5:1). When the pharaoh made life even more miserable for the Hebrew slaves, God began to show his power to the Egyptian ruler through a series of miracles (chs 5–12). God performed the first three miracles through Aaron, using a rod (probably a shepherd’s staff). The pharaoh had his palace sorcerers do similar tricks. After God brought a plague of gnats (<span>kjv<\/span> “lice”) over all Egypt, the Egyptian magicians admitted defeat and said, “This is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then God brought on more plagues through Moses, culminating in the deaths of all the Egyptians’ firstborn sons. Aaron was with Moses (12:1-28) when God revealed how he would “pass over” the properly marked homes of the Israelites, sparing their children on the night the Egyptian children died. That event was the origin of the Passover feast still observed by Jews today (13:1-16).<\/p>\n<p>After God led the Israelites to safety and destroyed the pursuing Egyptians, Aaron participated with Moses in governing the people on their long wilderness journey to the Promised Land (Ex 16:1-6). Later, battling against Amalek’s army, Aaron helped hold up Moses’ weary arms in prayer to maintain God’s blessing (17:8-16). Although always subordinate to Moses, Aaron seems to have been recognized as an important leader (18:12). God summoned him to be with Moses when God gave the law on Mt Sinai (19:24). Aaron was among the representatives of the people who ratified God’s statutes in the Book of the Covenant (24:1-8). Aaron went with those leaders partway up the holy mountain and saw the vision of the God of Israel (24:9-10). With Hur, he was left in charge when Moses was with God on the mountaintop (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n\n<p>Moses was gone for over a month, and in a moment of weakness, Aaron gave in to the people’s request for an idol to worship. He melted down their gold ornaments to make a golden image of a calf (Ex 32:1-4). (The Israelites had probably been influenced in Egypt by the cult of Apis, a fertility god in the form of a bull.) At first, Aaron seemed to think he might be doing something acceptable to God (v 5), but things got out of hand and a drunken sex orgy took place around the idol (v 6). God was angry enough to destroy the people, but Moses interceded, reminding God of his promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants (Ex 32:7-14). Moses furiously confronted Aaron about the immorality and idolatry, which Aaron blamed on the people without admitting any guilt of his own (vv 21-24). Although the idolators were punished by death (Ex 32:25-28) and the whole camp by a plague (v 35), Aaron was evidently not punished. In a retelling of the events, Moses said that Aaron was in great danger but was spared because he had prayed for him (Dt 9:20).<\/p>\n<p>In their second year of nomadic wilderness life, Aaron helped Moses carry out a census (Nm 1:1-3, 17-18). Eventually, Aaron may have become jealous of Moses’ position of leadership, for Miriam and Aaron began to slander their brother, even though the elderly Moses was by then more humble than any man on earth (Nm 12:1-4). God’s anger toward the two was averted by Moses’ prayer, although Miriam did suffer for her sin (12:5-15). Aaron again seems to have escaped punishment entirely. With Moses, Aaron opposed a rebellion at Kadesh (14:1-5). He stood with Moses against a later revolt (ch 16). After a final incident at Meribah, where the Israelites almost revolted again, God accused Moses and Aaron of having failed to take him at his word and denied them entry into the Promised Land (20:1-12). Aaron died at the age of 123 on Mt Hor, after Moses had removed his elaborate priestly garments and put them on Aaron’s son Eleazar (Nm 20:23-29; 33:38-39).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Exodus, The; Wilderness Wanderings; Priests and Levites; Levi, Tribe of; Aaron’s Rod.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AARON Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Am...","summary_en":"AARON Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Am...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elder","title_en":"Elder","content_ro":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","summary_en":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":40942,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68568,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96194,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123820,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7802,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Courts and Trials","title_en":"Courts and Trials","content_ro":"<h3>COURTS AND TRIALS<\/h3>\n<p>Legal disputes were as much a part of life in Bible times as they are today. The ways that courts operated and trials were conducted, however, were quite different. Unless those customs are understood, modern readers of the Bible, thinking of contemporary legal procedures, may misunderstand the judicial accounts contained in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLegalProcedures\">Old Testament Legal Procedures<\/p>\n<h5>Exodus to Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy contain most of the law in the OT, plus much other information about courts and legal procedures. Those books reveal how trials were conducted before Israel had kings. Certain changes in the legal system occurring after the establishment of the monarchy (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) are described in other OT books.<\/p>\n<p>The OT depicts God as supreme lawgiver and judge, with Moses and later the kings as God’s deputies. But Moses did not create the law or decide the most difficult cases, which were referred directly to God for the decision (see Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36; 27:1-11). When disputes arose between Israel’s leaders, God intervened, judging the guilty party directly (Nm 16–17). Thus law is seen in the OT as a divine revelation, not a human creation, as it was regarded in ancient Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Usually it was not necessary to seek God’s direct guidance; precedent was sufficient. Elders were appointed in Israel to serve as judges of all but the most serious cases, relieving Moses of the burden of judging all the people himself (Ex 18:13-27). Deuteronomy 16:18 specifies that “judges” be appointed in every town; in other passages those responsible for punishing criminals are called “the elders” (Dt 19:12). The local judges were obviously nonprofessionals selected from the most respected members of each tribe or village. Difficult cases were referred to a central court of justice to be decided by the priests and, in the period of the judges, by the civil and military leader (17:8-12). Deborah and Samuel were both examples of such “judges of Israel.” Samuel even conducted a circuit court in a number of different centers (Jgs 4:4-5; 1 Sm 7:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel, as in other ancient societies, private prosecution was the norm. An individual with a grievance had to bring the case before the court. Only in situations of idolatry or other serious religious crimes were public prosecutions instituted (Dt 13; 17:2-7). Even in murder cases prosecution was left in the hands of the victim’s relatives. One relative, called the “avenger of blood,” had to pursue the alleged murderer to the nearest city of refuge, where a trial was held (Nm 35:10-34; Dt 19:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Trials were held in a public place, such as the open space near a city gate (Dt 21:19). During the trial, the judges were seated, but the parties to the dispute and the witnesses stood. At least two witnesses were required to convict (19:15). They had to be eyewitnesses who had caught the accused red-handed. Where such clear-cut evidence was lacking (for example in disputes over ownership), the litigants could take an oath to demonstrate their honesty (Ex 22:8-13). If a husband suspected his wife of infidelity but had no proof, he could require her to undergo an ordeal of drinking “bitter water” to demonstrate her innocence (Nm 5:6-31).<\/p>\n<p>When all the evidence had been presented, the judges gave their verdict. Those who had brought the accusation had the duty of enforcing the court’s sentence. Thus, a witness of idolatry had to throw the first stone at the guilty person’s execution (Dt 17:7). Certain administrative officials may have had the job of writing down the court’s decision and seeing that it was enforced (16:18). At times it may have been difficult for people to uphold their legal rights if their opponent came from a strong and wealthy family.<\/p>\n<h5>Other Old Testament Books<\/h5>\n<p>When Israel became a kingdom, certain changes were made in its judicial system. Most obviously, the king became the supreme judge who dealt with the most difficult cases. Solomon demonstrated his great wisdom in adjudicating between two women who both claimed to be the mother of a particular baby (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Kings, who had all the power necessary to enforce their decisions, were expected to use it to help the weak members of society, such as orphans and widows (Ps 72:12).<\/p>\n<p>In practice, however, Israel’s kings did not always live up to that ideal. Absalom sowed the seeds of a revolution by telling those who came to the royal court that his father, King David, did not administer justice well (2 Sm 15:1-6). One notable trial in the OT illustrates how royal judicial powers could be completely misused by unscrupulous rulers. Naboth was put to death on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy so that King Ahab could extend his palace grounds by taking over Naboth’s vineyard. Though the charge was false, the trial followed correct legal procedures. Two scoundrels were found to give evidence that they had heard Naboth curse God and the king (1 Kgs 21:10); one witness would have been insufficient to secure conviction. Naboth was tried by the elders of the city in a public place. After being convicted he was taken outside the city and executed (vv 11-13). In other trials the prophet Jeremiah was charged with subversive activities more than once (Jer 26; 37:11–38:28).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets sometimes pictured God as taking Israel to court to answer for the nation’s misdeeds. God would list Israel’s sins and invite the people to explain their behavior. Sometimes heaven and earth, or the mountains, were called to be witnesses confirming the truth of God’s accusations. Finally judgment was pronounced (e.g., Is 1:2-26; 43; Jer 2:4-37; Mi 6).<\/p>\n<p>A theme running through the book of Job is Job’s request for a trial. Job thought that if he were given a fair hearing, his innocence would be demonstrated and God would stop causing him so much suffering (cf. Jb 13:23). Eventually God heeded Job’s request and a long cross-examination began, finally reducing Job to silence (42:1-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentLegalProcedures\">New Testament Legal Procedures<\/p>\n<p>Numerous trials occur in the NT. Jesus was tried by the Sanhedrin (the supreme Jewish religious court) and also by the Roman governor. The book of Acts mentions various court actions designed to stop the spread of Christianity. Luke, the author of Acts, presents a vivid and accurate description of how courts operated in provinces of the Roman Empire. Acts reaches a climax with Paul traveling to Rome to have his case heard by the Roman emperor Nero. Legal procedures in Roman courts were governed by complicated rules broadly resembling modern judicial technicalities. Serious crime was handled by public prosecutors, and trials were usually conducted by one judge. There were lawyers for the prosecution and lawyers for the defense.<\/p>\n<p>In Judea and other provinces of the empire, the local legal system was not suppressed. Traditional Jewish courts were allowed to try minor and religious offenses (Acts 4; 6:12–7:60) but were not permitted to handle serious cases where the death penalty might be involved. For that reason, when the Sanhedrin found Jesus guilty of blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God and the Messiah, they had to transfer the case to Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator (governor) of Judea. The Jews considered blasphemy worthy of death, but as they admitted to Pilate, “It is not lawful for us to put any man to death” (Jn 18:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The rule throughout the Roman Empire was that only governors could pronounce the death sentence. Execution of the apostle James by Jewish authorities, mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, took place during an interregnum between two governors. The stoning of Stephen was done in haste, without the consent of Pilate (Acts 7).<\/p>\n<h5>The Trials of Jesus<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was first tried by the Sanhedrin, presided over by the high priest. By later standards of Jewish legal practice, that trial was somewhat irregular. For example, it seems to have been held both at night and on the eve of a festival. Criminal trials were not supposed to take place at such times. It is uncertain that those rules existed in Jesus’ day, but even if they did, little can be made of that technicality since the Jewish court had no power to carry out its sentence.<\/p>\n<p>After conviction by the Sanhedrin, Jesus was taken to Pilate, whose Jerusalem residence, the old royal palace called the Praetorium, was on the western side of the city near the modern Jaffa Gate. The Romans were unlikely to sentence anyone to death in a religious matter, so the Jewish authorities presented their charges against Jesus in political language: he violated the law by “forbidding us to give tribute to Caesar, and saying that he himself is Christ a king” (Lk 23:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Perhaps sensing something false about those charges (they were actually religious rather than political), Pilate sent Jesus to Herod, the ruler of Galilee, who was in Jerusalem at the time. Pilate, who did not have to send Galileans to Herod for trial, probably saw this as a means of avoiding an uncomfortable decision. Herod, however, pronounced Jesus innocent and returned him to Pilate.<\/p>\n<p>Pilate offered to give Jesus a disciplinary beating traditionally given to troublemakers as a warning to behave themselves in the future (Lk 23:16). But that did not satisfy Jesus’ accusers, who pressed the charge of insurrection, threatening to report Pilate to the emperor if he did not convict Jesus. Pilate, who had not been a very successful governor, feared official complaints about his administration, so the threat worked. He sentenced Jesus to be crucified on the charge of being king of the Jews. The heavy scourging that preceded the Crucifixion was never a punishment by itself but was a frequent accompaniment to other punishments. Another feature of Roman legal practice illustrated in the Gospels was the division of Jesus’ clothes among the soldiers; executioners were allowed to keep such personal effects as a fringe benefit.<\/p>\n<h5>The Trials of the Apostle Paul<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s trials recorded in the book of Acts also reflect the division between Jewish and Roman authority in legal matters. When arrested, Paul had a preliminary hearing before the Sanhedrin (Acts 23). He was then transferred to the governor for a formal trial in Caesarea, the governor’s usual headquarters. There he was tried before Felix, who adjourned the case for two years until a new governor could be appointed. Luke reported that Felix (another unpopular governor) did that to please the Jews, but it was quite common for governors to leave cases to be dealt with by their successors.<\/p>\n<p>When Festus, the new governor, arrived, he suggested that Paul be tried in Jerusalem. Paul, disliking the prospect of being tried there, exercised his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome before the emperor (Acts 25:1-20). The rest of the book of Acts tells how Paul eventually reached Rome and had to wait another two years before his case was heard. No details of Paul’s trial in Rome are known, but Nero, who was emperor when Paul arrived, tried very few cases himself. He appointed judges to handle appeals cases such as Paul’s, so it is unlikely that Paul was actually tried by Nero.<\/p>\n<p>The right of appeal to the emperor was not the only legal right possessed by Roman citizens. They were also protected from being beaten without a trial, a right asserted by Paul in Philippi and Jerusalem (Acts 16:37; 22:24-29).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Avenger of Blood; Cities of Refuge; Civil Law and Justice; Criminal Law and Punishment; Sanhedrin.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COURTS AND TRIALS<\/h3>\n<p>Legal disputes were as much a part of life in Bible times as they are today. The ways that courts operated and trials were conducted, however, were quite different. Unless those customs are understood, modern readers of the Bible, thinking of contemporary legal procedures, may misunderstand the judicial accounts contained in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentLegalProcedures\">Old Testament Legal Procedures<\/p>\n<h5>Exodus to Deuteronomy<\/h5>\n<p>The books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy contain most of the law in the OT, plus much other information about courts and legal procedures. Those books reveal how trials were conducted before Israel had kings. Certain changes in the legal system occurring after the establishment of the monarchy (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) are described in other OT books.<\/p>\n<p>The OT depicts God as supreme lawgiver and judge, with Moses and later the kings as God’s deputies. But Moses did not create the law or decide the most difficult cases, which were referred directly to God for the decision (see Lv 24:10-23; Nm 15:32-36; 27:1-11). When disputes arose between Israel’s leaders, God intervened, judging the guilty party directly (Nm 16–17). Thus law is seen in the OT as a divine revelation, not a human creation, as it was regarded in ancient Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Usually it was not necessary to seek God’s direct guidance; precedent was sufficient. Elders were appointed in Israel to serve as judges of all but the most serious cases, relieving Moses of the burden of judging all the people himself (Ex 18:13-27). Deuteronomy 16:18 specifies that “judges” be appointed in every town; in other passages those responsible for punishing criminals are called “the elders” (Dt 19:12). The local judges were obviously nonprofessionals selected from the most respected members of each tribe or village. Difficult cases were referred to a central court of justice to be decided by the priests and, in the period of the judges, by the civil and military leader (17:8-12). Deborah and Samuel were both examples of such “judges of Israel.” Samuel even conducted a circuit court in a number of different centers (Jgs 4:4-5; 1 Sm 7:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel, as in other ancient societies, private prosecution was the norm. An individual with a grievance had to bring the case before the court. Only in situations of idolatry or other serious religious crimes were public prosecutions instituted (Dt 13; 17:2-7). Even in murder cases prosecution was left in the hands of the victim’s relatives. One relative, called the “avenger of blood,” had to pursue the alleged murderer to the nearest city of refuge, where a trial was held (Nm 35:10-34; Dt 19:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>Trials were held in a public place, such as the open space near a city gate (Dt 21:19). During the trial, the judges were seated, but the parties to the dispute and the witnesses stood. At least two witnesses were required to convict (19:15). They had to be eyewitnesses who had caught the accused red-handed. Where such clear-cut evidence was lacking (for example in disputes over ownership), the litigants could take an oath to demonstrate their honesty (Ex 22:8-13). If a husband suspected his wife of infidelity but had no proof, he could require her to undergo an ordeal of drinking “bitter water” to demonstrate her innocence (Nm 5:6-31).<\/p>\n<p>When all the evidence had been presented, the judges gave their verdict. Those who had brought the accusation had the duty of enforcing the court’s sentence. Thus, a witness of idolatry had to throw the first stone at the guilty person’s execution (Dt 17:7). Certain administrative officials may have had the job of writing down the court’s decision and seeing that it was enforced (16:18). At times it may have been difficult for people to uphold their legal rights if their opponent came from a strong and wealthy family.<\/p>\n<h5>Other Old Testament Books<\/h5>\n<p>When Israel became a kingdom, certain changes were made in its judicial system. Most obviously, the king became the supreme judge who dealt with the most difficult cases. Solomon demonstrated his great wisdom in adjudicating between two women who both claimed to be the mother of a particular baby (1 Kgs 3:16-28). Kings, who had all the power necessary to enforce their decisions, were expected to use it to help the weak members of society, such as orphans and widows (Ps 72:12).<\/p>\n<p>In practice, however, Israel’s kings did not always live up to that ideal. Absalom sowed the seeds of a revolution by telling those who came to the royal court that his father, King David, did not administer justice well (2 Sm 15:1-6). One notable trial in the OT illustrates how royal judicial powers could be completely misused by unscrupulous rulers. Naboth was put to death on a trumped-up charge of blasphemy so that King Ahab could extend his palace grounds by taking over Naboth’s vineyard. Though the charge was false, the trial followed correct legal procedures. Two scoundrels were found to give evidence that they had heard Naboth curse God and the king (1 Kgs 21:10); one witness would have been insufficient to secure conviction. Naboth was tried by the elders of the city in a public place. After being convicted he was taken outside the city and executed (vv 11-13). In other trials the prophet Jeremiah was charged with subversive activities more than once (Jer 26; 37:11–38:28).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets sometimes pictured God as taking Israel to court to answer for the nation’s misdeeds. God would list Israel’s sins and invite the people to explain their behavior. Sometimes heaven and earth, or the mountains, were called to be witnesses confirming the truth of God’s accusations. Finally judgment was pronounced (e.g., Is 1:2-26; 43; Jer 2:4-37; Mi 6).<\/p>\n<p>A theme running through the book of Job is Job’s request for a trial. Job thought that if he were given a fair hearing, his innocence would be demonstrated and God would stop causing him so much suffering (cf. Jb 13:23). Eventually God heeded Job’s request and a long cross-examination began, finally reducing Job to silence (42:1-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentLegalProcedures\">New Testament Legal Procedures<\/p>\n<p>Numerous trials occur in the NT. Jesus was tried by the Sanhedrin (the supreme Jewish religious court) and also by the Roman governor. The book of Acts mentions various court actions designed to stop the spread of Christianity. Luke, the author of Acts, presents a vivid and accurate description of how courts operated in provinces of the Roman Empire. Acts reaches a climax with Paul traveling to Rome to have his case heard by the Roman emperor Nero. Legal procedures in Roman courts were governed by complicated rules broadly resembling modern judicial technicalities. Serious crime was handled by public prosecutors, and trials were usually conducted by one judge. There were lawyers for the prosecution and lawyers for the defense.<\/p>\n<p>In Judea and other provinces of the empire, the local legal system was not suppressed. Traditional Jewish courts were allowed to try minor and religious offenses (Acts 4; 6:12–7:60) but were not permitted to handle serious cases where the death penalty might be involved. For that reason, when the Sanhedrin found Jesus guilty of blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God and the Messiah, they had to transfer the case to Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator (governor) of Judea. The Jews considered blasphemy worthy of death, but as they admitted to Pilate, “It is not lawful for us to put any man to death” (Jn 18:31, <span>rsv<\/span>). The rule throughout the Roman Empire was that only governors could pronounce the death sentence. Execution of the apostle James by Jewish authorities, mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus, took place during an interregnum between two governors. The stoning of Stephen was done in haste, without the consent of Pilate (Acts 7).<\/p>\n<h5>The Trials of Jesus<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was first tried by the Sanhedrin, presided over by the high priest. By later standards of Jewish legal practice, that trial was somewhat irregular. For example, it seems to have been held both at night and on the eve of a festival. Criminal trials were not supposed to take place at such times. It is uncertain that those rules existed in Jesus’ day, but even if they did, little can be made of that technicality since the Jewish court had no power to carry out its sentence.<\/p>\n<p>After conviction by the Sanhedrin, Jesus was taken to Pilate, whose Jerusalem residence, the old royal palace called the Praetorium, was on the western side of the city near the modern Jaffa Gate. The Romans were unlikely to sentence anyone to death in a religious matter, so the Jewish authorities presented their charges against Jesus in political language: he violated the law by “forbidding us to give tribute to Caesar, and saying that he himself is Christ a king” (Lk 23:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Perhaps sensing something false about those charges (they were actually religious rather than political), Pilate sent Jesus to Herod, the ruler of Galilee, who was in Jerusalem at the time. Pilate, who did not have to send Galileans to Herod for trial, probably saw this as a means of avoiding an uncomfortable decision. Herod, however, pronounced Jesus innocent and returned him to Pilate.<\/p>\n<p>Pilate offered to give Jesus a disciplinary beating traditionally given to troublemakers as a warning to behave themselves in the future (Lk 23:16). But that did not satisfy Jesus’ accusers, who pressed the charge of insurrection, threatening to report Pilate to the emperor if he did not convict Jesus. Pilate, who had not been a very successful governor, feared official complaints about his administration, so the threat worked. He sentenced Jesus to be crucified on the charge of being king of the Jews. The heavy scourging that preceded the Crucifixion was never a punishment by itself but was a frequent accompaniment to other punishments. Another feature of Roman legal practice illustrated in the Gospels was the division of Jesus’ clothes among the soldiers; executioners were allowed to keep such personal effects as a fringe benefit.<\/p>\n<h5>The Trials of the Apostle Paul<\/h5>\n<p>Paul’s trials recorded in the book of Acts also reflect the division between Jewish and Roman authority in legal matters. When arrested, Paul had a preliminary hearing before the Sanhedrin (Acts 23). He was then transferred to the governor for a formal trial in Caesarea, the governor’s usual headquarters. There he was tried before Felix, who adjourned the case for two years until a new governor could be appointed. Luke reported that Felix (another unpopular governor) did that to please the Jews, but it was quite common for governors to leave cases to be dealt with by their successors.<\/p>\n<p>When Festus, the new governor, arrived, he suggested that Paul be tried in Jerusalem. Paul, disliking the prospect of being tried there, exercised his right as a Roman citizen to be tried in Rome before the emperor (Acts 25:1-20). The rest of the book of Acts tells how Paul eventually reached Rome and had to wait another two years before his case was heard. No details of Paul’s trial in Rome are known, but Nero, who was emperor when Paul arrived, tried very few cases himself. He appointed judges to handle appeals cases such as Paul’s, so it is unlikely that Paul was actually tried by Nero.<\/p>\n<p>The right of appeal to the emperor was not the only legal right possessed by Roman citizens. They were also protected from being beaten without a trial, a right asserted by Paul in Philippi and Jerusalem (Acts 16:37; 22:24-29).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Avenger of Blood; Cities of Refuge; Civil Law and Justice; Criminal Law and Punishment; Sanhedrin.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COURTS AND TRIALS Legal disputes were as much a part of life in Bible times as they are today. The ways that courts operated and trials were conducted, however, were quite different. Unless those customs are understood, modern readers of the Bible, thinking of contemporary legal procedures, may misunderstand the judicial accounts contained in the Bible. Old Testament Legal Procedures Exodus to Deuteronomy The books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy contain most of the law in the ...","summary_en":"COURTS AND TRIALS Legal disputes were as much a part of life in Bible times as they are today. The ways that courts operated and trials were conducted, however, were quite different. Unless those customs are understood, modern readers of the Bible, thinking of contemporary legal procedures, may misunderstand the judicial accounts contained in the Bible. Old Testament Legal Procedures Exodus to Deuteronomy The books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy contain most of the law in the ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10283,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elder","title_en":"Elder","content_ro":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELDER<\/h3>\n<p>Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder or groups of elders can also be found in the world surrounding ancient Israel and in the Greco-Roman world of the NT period.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The elder, or the institution of elders, is closely linked with the tribal system. Tribes were composed of clans, and clans of large, extended family units. By virtue of age and function in a patriarchal society, the father of a family ruled. This fact of age, as well as the wisdom and maturity invested in older persons, is undoubtedly the origin of the authority that these elders exercised. A clan was ruled by the heads of the families constituting it, forming a council of elders. In time of war, each clan furnished a contingent; these were led by a chief, probably chosen from the ranks of the elders.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel’s premonarchy period, local administration and judicial action was largely in the hands of those elders. In the exodus narrative, it was the elders of Israel (heads of families) who were instructed by Moses concerning the first Passover meal (Ex 12:21-22). It was these elders who, in Exodus 18:12, met with Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, and from whose ranks were chosen worthy representatives to assist Moses in the interpretation of the law of God and the administration of justice (18:13-23). Similarly, according to Numbers 11:16-17, Moses was instructed by God to select 70 men from among the elders of Israel to assist him in leadership of the people. In this latter account, the elders were marked by a special endowment of God’s Spirit. In the former the elders—chosen as coadministrators with Moses—were those known to be trustworthy.<\/p>\n<p>A central function of elders was the administration of justice. They were the “judges,” who sat “in the gate,” the traditional courtroom of ancient villages and towns. Here disputes and trials were settled by the elders, and community affairs were discussed and decisions made (Gn 23:10, 18; Jb 29:7; Prv 24:7; 31:23). The preservation and application of the law was clearly in the hands of elders who sat at the gate of the town (Dt 19:12; 21:19; 22:15; 25:7-10). Ruth 4:1-12 provides an excellent description of such a process.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the monarchy, local administration and judicial authority continued to be invested in councils of elders. At the end of Saul’s reign, David sent messages and gifts to the elders of the towns of Judah (1 Sm 30:26), obviously recognizing that his efficient rule would depend on their goodwill and allegiance. In the time of Jehu (2 Kgs 10:5), we hear of elders in Samaria, side by side with a governor and master of the palace. To facilitate her plot against Naboth, Jezebel wrote instructions to the elders and nobles of Jezreel (1 Kgs 21:8-11). Again, Josiah convened the elders of Judah and Jerusalem to hear the reading of the law and to enter with him into a new covenant of obedience (2 Kgs 23:1). It is clear that the elders of Israel were now responsible for the application of the law within their jurisdictions. Besides administrative and judicial functions, elders also assumed cultic roles (Ex 24:1, 9; Lv 4:14-15).<\/p>\n<p>The institution of the elders survived the collapse of the royal institutions. Elders were present during the exile (Ez 8:1; 14:1; 20:1-3) as well as after the return (e.g., Ezr 10:16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InJudaismoftheNewTestamentPeriod\">In Judaism of the New Testament Period<\/p>\n<p>While use of the title “elder” to designate officers of various Greek cult associations and village magistrates may have influenced the development of community structure in the gentile churches, the Christian office (or function) of elder stems from a very similar institution within Judaism. In the first three Gospels and in Acts there are numerous references to elders as functionaries within the communal and religious life of Judaism. Generally they are mentioned together with one or more other groups of functionaries (quoting the <span>rsv<\/span>): “elders and chief priests and scribes” (Mt 16:21); “chief priests and elders of the people” (21:23; 26:3, 47); “scribes and elders” (26:57; 27:41); “chief priests and elders” (27:1, 3, 12, 20); “rulers and elders and scribes” (Acts 4:5); “rulers of the people and elders” (v 8). From these NT passages we cannot determine what exactly their functions were, or how they differed from rulers or scribes. However, the duties of Jewish elders are clearly described in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> in the Mishnah, as well as in the community rule books of the Qumran ascetics, discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\n<p>Each Jewish community had its council of elders, who had general administrative oversight and represented the community in relations with Roman authorities. Their primary duty was judicial. They were custodians of the law and its traditional interpretations (see Mt 15:2), and they were charged with both its enforcement and the punishment of offenders. The most important of these councils of elders was the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem, a group of 71 men who acted as the final court for the entire nation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheChristianCommunity\">In the Christian Community<\/p>\n<p>Since the primitive church eventually regarded itself as the new Israel (Mt 21:43; Gal 6:16), it is easy to see why it should gradually adopt the institution of elders. Though it is difficult to make out the order that prevailed in the first Christian communities, because it apparently varied according to place and time in both form and extent, the presence and functioning of elders was part of the reality of early church life.<\/p>\n<p>In Luke’s account of the origin and spread of Christianity, the elders are already present in the church at Jerusalem. In Acts we see Christians at Antioch sending famine relief “to the elders [of the Judean churches] by Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:30). On their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas “appointed elders in every church” (14:23). Later, Paul and Barnabas were sent from Antioch to Jerusalem “to the apostles and elders” about the question of circumcision of gentile Christians (15:2), and were “welcomed by the church, and the apostles, and the elders” (v 4), who gathered to hear the case and resolve the issue (vv 6-23).<\/p>\n<p>Who these elders were, and how they were chosen, we are not told. It seems possible to argue, on the basis of Jewish precedent, that age and prominence gave them the privilege of rendering special service within the community. Veneration for age was a deeply rooted sentiment among Jews, and the name “presbyter” (elder) was derived from Jewish usage. It is also possible that, like the appointment of “the seven” for special service by the laying on of hands (6:1-6), the first elders in the Jerusalem church were appointed by the apostles. Apparently they functioned in the Christian community in ways comparable to the elders in the Jewish communities and the Sanhedrin (11:30; 15:2-6, 22-23; 16:4; 21:18).<\/p>\n<p>Paul apparently continued the practice among the gentile churches, though elders are not mentioned in the earliest Pauline writings. They are mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tm 5:17, 19; Ti 1:5). On his last journey to Jerusalem, Paul summoned the elders of the church at Ephesus to Miletus (Acts 20:17) to bid them farewell, and to instruct them to be faithful in their task of overseeing and caring for the Christian flock, the church of God (20:28).<\/p>\n<p>Although elders are not explicitly mentioned in Paul’s early letters, they may have been among the leaders who presided over the congregations (Rom 12:8; 1 Thes 5:12-13). Philippians 1:1 certainly reveals a definite stratification of leadership (“overseers and deacons”) within a young Pauline congregation. And 1 Timothy 5:17, reflecting what is often considered a later phase in the development of church government, attributes the functions of preaching and teaching to the ruling elders. Further, that Christian elders exercised pastoral functions may be inferred from 1 Peter 5:1-5 and James 5:14.<\/p>\n<p>There is one passage where we find a possible identification of an apostle (Peter) as also being an elder: “I exhort the elders among you, as a fellow elder and a witness of the sufferings of Christ” (1 Pt 5:1a, <span>rsv<\/span>). This text may indicate that elders were appointed and functioned as extensions of apostolic servanthood. Paul’s practice of appointing elders in the churches before his departure may support such a suggestion. The fact that in the tradition of the later church the “elder” of 2 and 3 John was identified as the apostle John points in a similar direction. Though such an identification is implicit, the apostles could function as elders but not the other way around.<\/p>\n<p>The elders had several functions. For example, 1 Timothy 5:17 speaks of elders as involved in preaching and teaching; James 5:14 sees them involved in a healing ministry; 1 Peter 5:2 exhorts them to tend the flock. Thus, the prophets and teachers who led the church at Antioch (according to Acts 13:1-3) may well have been the elders of this community.<\/p>\n<p>The diaconate, too, whose roots are to be seen in the selection of “the seven” for service to those in need (Acts 6:1-3), was not restricted to purely external service. Two of these men, whom Luke introduces to us as deacons, appear at the same time as evangelists who were particularly effective as preachers of the Word, performers of miracles, expounders of the Scriptures (Stephen, Acts 6:8-10; Philip, Acts 8:4-13, 26-40).<\/p>\n<p>Whereas in the later church bishops and elders were clearly distinguished, the NT reflects an early period when these offices were virtually synonymous. In Paul’s farewell speech at Miletus (Acts 20), addressed specifically to the Ephesian church elders (v 17), he tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them “overseers, to care for the church of God” (v 28). Whether “overseer” is used here in the later technical sense of bishop or the more general sense of guardian is not clear. However, in Titus 1:5-7, the elders of verse 5 are clearly the same persons as the bishops of verse 7. Again, the bishops of Philippians 1:1 are likely to be understood as the elders appointed by Paul upon his leaving this mission station.<\/p>\n<p>It is clear that church government in the NT period was still relatively fluid, but the seeds for the later structures were surely planted. The institution of the elders, on the basis of Jewish precedent, was central. The episcopate (overseers\/bishops) probably emerged out of the presbyterian (elders), one elder being appointed as overseer by the entire council of elders.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bishop; Deacon, Deaconess; Pastor; Presbyter; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","summary_en":"ELDER Person who, by virtue of position in the family, clan, or tribe; or by reason of personality, prowess, stature, or influence; or through a process of appointment and ordination, exercised leadership and judicial functions in both religious and secular spheres in the ancient world, both among biblical and nonbiblical peoples. The roots of the development of the presbytery (group of elders) in the NT and postapostolic church originate in Judaism and the OT, though the figure of the elder ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19745,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jethro","title_en":"Jethro","content_ro":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETHRO<\/h3>\n<p>Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midian (Ex 2:16; 3:1). It is not definitely known what the religion of the Midianites was, but some scholars have suggested that the Kenites, who were a tribe included in the nation of Midianites (Jgs 1:16), had a tribal god named Yahweh whom Jethro served as priest. Scholars who have suggested that Jethro’s tribal god, Yahweh, was introduced to Israel by Moses have not been able to establish their case. Biblical evidence does not support this interpretation. That Jethro was a god-fearing and god-serving man is quite clear. The biblical record could be understood to teach that Jethro knew of Israel’s God because he was a descendant of Abraham (Gn 25:2). Having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, Jethro acknowledged him as God, greatest of all gods. He also brought a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby worshiping Yahweh and identifying with Israel (Ex 18:11). This action has been interpreted as Jethro’s acceptance of a covenant with Israel, but the interpretation rests upon a faulty reading of what Jethro actually did and the meaning of sacrifice and a fellowship meal. Upon receiving Jethro’s good counsel concerning procedures for judging disputes among the people, Moses appointed able men as heads and judges over the people (vv 13-27). Jethro departed to his own land and seems to have had no further interaction with Israel, but his son (Nm 10:29-33) and other descendants later became a part of Israel (Jgs 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p> Jethro is referred to by other names, both in the Scriptures and later. The Talmud records that his name was Jether originally, but after his conversion it became Jethro; there is no definite evidence to support this. He is called Reuel, the father of seven daughters whom Moses met at a well (Ex 2:16-18; Nm 10:29). He is also referred to by the name Hobab (Jgs 4:11); and he is said to be the son of Reuel (Nm 10:29). The Scriptures do not explain the use of the different names. Suggestions include the following: (1) each Midianite tribe he served as a priest knew him by a different name; (2) Reuel was a tribal name, not personal; (3) Hobab, the son’s name, was used to refer to the father; (4) a gloss appears in the text at Exodus 2:18 and Judges 4:11. It can be quite clearly established, however, that Jethro had a son named Hobab.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Midian, Midianite; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","summary_en":"JETHRO Father-in-law of Moses. Zipporah, Jethro’s daughter, became Moses’ wife while he was a fugitive in the wilderness (Ex 2:21). When Moses departed for Egypt, he took Zipporah and his sons with him (4:20), but he must have sent them back. Jethro brought them to Moses after the Israelites arrived in Sinai (18:1-7). Through this familial relationship with Moses, Jethro became involved with Israel. Jethro’s relationship with Israel has been variously interpreted. Jethro was a priest of Midia...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21190,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Judge","title_en":"Judge","content_ro":"<h3>JUDGE<\/h3>\n<p>An official authorized to decide matters brought before a court. The judge undertook a variety of tasks, mostly in legal and judicial areas, but at times in political areas. In the patriarchal period the elders of the tribes decided disputes. Moses appointed other judges to assist him, taking only the difficult cases himself (Ex 18:13-26; Dt 1:9-17). Samuel went on circuit judging cases (1 Sm 7:16-17); his sons became judges too (8:1). During the monarchy period, the office of judge was well established.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era two kinds of courts operated in Palestine, the Jewish and the Roman. Capital cases were tried before a Roman judge. Witnesses were produced at trials (Mt 18:16; 2 Cor 13:1; 1 Tm 5:19). Jesus himself was tried before Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator (Mt 27:11-25; Mk 15:2-5; Lk 23:2-3; Jn 18:29-40), and Paul before Felix (Acts 24:1-26) and Festus (25:1-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDGE<\/h3>\n<p>An official authorized to decide matters brought before a court. The judge undertook a variety of tasks, mostly in legal and judicial areas, but at times in political areas. In the patriarchal period the elders of the tribes decided disputes. Moses appointed other judges to assist him, taking only the difficult cases himself (Ex 18:13-26; Dt 1:9-17). Samuel went on circuit judging cases (1 Sm 7:16-17); his sons became judges too (8:1). During the monarchy period, the office of judge was well established.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT era two kinds of courts operated in Palestine, the Jewish and the Roman. Capital cases were tried before a Roman judge. Witnesses were produced at trials (Mt 18:16; 2 Cor 13:1; 1 Tm 5:19). Jesus himself was tried before Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator (Mt 27:11-25; Mk 15:2-5; Lk 23:2-3; Jn 18:29-40), and Paul before Felix (Acts 24:1-26) and Festus (25:1-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Civil Law and Justice; Criminal Law and Punishment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDGE An official authorized to decide matters brought before a court. The judge undertook a variety of tasks, mostly in legal and judicial areas, but at times in political areas. In the patriarchal period the elders of the tribes decided disputes. Moses appointed other judges to assist him, taking only the difficult cases himself (Ex 18:13-26; Dt 1:9-17). Samuel went on circuit judging cases (1 Sm 7:16-17); his sons became judges too (8:1). During the monarchy period, the office of judge was...","summary_en":"JUDGE An official authorized to decide matters brought before a court. The judge undertook a variety of tasks, mostly in legal and judicial areas, but at times in political areas. In the patriarchal period the elders of the tribes decided disputes. Moses appointed other judges to assist him, taking only the difficult cases himself (Ex 18:13-26; Dt 1:9-17). Samuel went on circuit judging cases (1 Sm 7:16-17); his sons became judges too (8:1). During the monarchy period, the office of judge was...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26358,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","summary_en":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","summary_en":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","summary_en":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","summary_en":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","summary_en":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99072,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","summary_en":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126697,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-27<\/strong> Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of delegation that would make Moses’ life easier.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","summary_en":"18:13-27 Jethro’s wise advice is a further example of God’s providence, although it was not given in a miraculous way. Jethro introduced Moses to a style of leadership that involved delegation of authority. It appears that Moses had been following an Egyptian style of leadership that was heavily hierarchical and based on circumstances. No Egyptian law code has yet been discovered. It appears that all authority flowed downward from the pharaoh, who ruled by fiat. Jethro proposed a structure of...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126698,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:13-16<\/strong> Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","summary_en":"18:13-16 Moses had set himself up in place of Pharaoh, making himself indispensable to the people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":60612,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88238,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115864,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143490,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":43821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:17","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","summary_en":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:17","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","summary_en":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99073,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:17","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","summary_en":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126699,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:17","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:17-18<\/strong> Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","summary_en":"18:17-18 Such a leader-centered approach is not good for either the leader or the people (see also 18:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":21740,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","summary_en":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","summary_en":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":99074,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","summary_en":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126700,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 18:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 18:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>18:19-22<\/strong> Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s <em>decrees<\/em> and <em>instructions<\/em> (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","summary_en":"18:19-22 Moses needed to distinguish between his teaching function, in which he received and declared God’s decrees and instructions (18:19-20), and his administrative function, in which he applied all of those decrees and instructions (18:21-22).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":15085,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Halakah*","title_en":"Halakah*","content_ro":"<h3>HALAKAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Overall term for Jewish law. Halakah, which means literally “walking,” gives the authoritative Jewish way of life as contained in the Mishnah. It shows Jews how they are to walk (i.e., live life) and what they must do (see Ex 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>First of all, Halakah rests upon the biblical laws and commandments found in the written Law (the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible) and the oral law (according to Jewish tradition, the unwritten law supposedly given to Moses on Mt Sinai and passed down through generations, finally to be recorded in the Talmud). In the Pentateuch, then, Halakah is given as law; for example, we are told not to work on the Sabbath. But what, in this context, does “work” mean? The written Law gives us no help, but in the Talmud we have Halakah, which is interpretation of the written Law, and in the Talmud we learn what “work” means.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Halakah rests upon all the rabbinic legislation and decisions handed down through the ages by great Jewish scholars. All these things, taken together, provide the basis for making religious-legal decisions in the orthodox Jewish community. All these things, the written and oral law plus the history of Jewish legal scholarship, provide us with Halakah.<\/p>\n<p>Halakah is intended to be all-encompassing, to handle every situation in life. One’s eating habits, sex life, business ethics, social activities, entertainment—these and much more are dealt with by Halakah. For this reason it has been called “the Jewish way”; it is the Jewish legal and practical guide to living.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Haggadah; Talmud.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HALAKAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Overall term for Jewish law. Halakah, which means literally “walking,” gives the authoritative Jewish way of life as contained in the Mishnah. It shows Jews how they are to walk (i.e., live life) and what they must do (see Ex 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>First of all, Halakah rests upon the biblical laws and commandments found in the written Law (the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible) and the oral law (according to Jewish tradition, the unwritten law supposedly given to Moses on Mt Sinai and passed down through generations, finally to be recorded in the Talmud). In the Pentateuch, then, Halakah is given as law; for example, we are told not to work on the Sabbath. But what, in this context, does “work” mean? The written Law gives us no help, but in the Talmud we have Halakah, which is interpretation of the written Law, and in the Talmud we learn what “work” means.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Halakah rests upon all the rabbinic legislation and decisions handed down through the ages by great Jewish scholars. All these things, taken together, provide the basis for making religious-legal decisions in the orthodox Jewish community. All these things, the written and oral law plus the history of Jewish legal scholarship, provide us with Halakah.<\/p>\n<p>Halakah is intended to be all-encompassing, to handle every situation in life. One’s eating habits, sex life, business ethics, social activities, entertainment—these and much more are dealt with by Halakah. For this reason it has been called “the Jewish way”; it is the Jewish legal and practical guide to living.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Haggadah; Talmud.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HALAKAH* Overall term for Jewish law. Halakah, which means literally “walking,” gives the authoritative Jewish way of life as contained in the Mishnah. It shows Jews how they are to walk (i.e., live life) and what they must do (see Ex 18:20). First of all, Halakah rests upon the biblical laws and commandments found in the written Law (the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible) and the oral law (according to Jewish tradition, the unwritten law supposedly given to Moses on Mt Sinai and ...","summary_en":"HALAKAH* Overall term for Jewish law. Halakah, which means literally “walking,” gives the authoritative Jewish way of life as contained in the Mishnah. It shows Jews how they are to walk (i.e., live life) and what they must do (see Ex 18:20). First of all, Halakah rests upon the biblical laws and commandments found in the written Law (the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible) and the oral law (according to Jewish tradition, the unwritten law supposedly given to Moses on Mt Sinai and ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":40943,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68569,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96195,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123821,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jethro (Reuel)","title_en":"Jethro (Reuel)","content_ro":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jethro (Reuel)<\/h3>\n<p>Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage.<\/p>\n<p>While Moses was still living in Midian near his father-in-law, he encountered God at the burning bush (Exod 3:1-2). Before leaving for Egypt, Moses asked Jethro’s permission to go; he later sent his family to stay with Jethro during the Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>When Moses and the Israelites were in the wilderness, Jethro returned with Moses’ family. Jethro, having heard of Yahweh’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, acknowledged him as the God of all gods. He worshiped Yahweh with a burnt offering and sacrifices, thereby identifying himself with Israel (18:11). In response, Israel’s leaders joined him for “a sacrificial meal in God’s presence” (18:12).<\/p>\n<p>Jethro saw that Moses was overwhelmed with caring for the vast numbers of Israelites, so he gave Moses good administrative advice about organizing the people more efficiently and about judging disputes among the people (18:13-23). Moses listened to this counsel and appointed able men to assist him as leaders and judges over the people (18:24-27). Jethro returned to Midian and seems not to have interacted further with Israel, but his son (Num 10:29-33) and other descendants later settled with the Israelites (Judg 1:16; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 2:16-25; 3:1; 18:1-27; Num 10:29; Judg 1:16; 4:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","summary_en":"Jethro (Reuel) Jethro, also called Reuel (Exod 2:16-18; Num 10:29), was “the priest of Midian” (Exod 2:16). Moses rescued Jethro’s seven daughters from the rough treatment of other shepherds at a well and helped them water their flocks. At home they told their father of this surprising encounter with “an Egyptian.” Jethro responded gratefully by inviting Moses for a meal, and Moses proceeded to settle there. At a later point, Jethro gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage. While Moses...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
🔍
Niciun rezultat
Nu am găsit versete care să conțină textul căutat.
Exod 18
— 27 versete
Exod 18
📘 Info carte
Se încarcă...
📖 Resurse