📖 Biblia online

Citește Biblia

Biblia audio Planuri audio structurate — ascultă Biblia zilnică

Exod 8

¹ Domnul a zis lui Moise: ,,Du-te la Faraon, şi spune-i: ,Aşa vorbeşte Domnul: ,Lasă pe poporul Meu să plece, ca să-Mi slujească.

² Dacă nu vrei să-l laşi să plece, am să aduc broaşte pe toată întinderea ţării tale.

³ Râul va mişuna de broaşte; ele se vor sui, şi vor intra în casa ta, în odaia ta de dormit şi în patul tău, în casa slujitorilor tăi şi în casele poporului tău, în cuptoarele şi în postăvile de frământat pânea.

⁴ Ba încă broaştele se vor sui şi pe tine, pe poporul tău, şi pe toţi slujitorii tăi.``

⁵ Domnul a zis lui Moise: ,,Spune lui Aaron: ,Întinde-ţi mâna cu toiagul peste râuri, peste pâraie şi peste iazuri, şi scoate broaşte din ele peste ţara Egiptului!``

⁶ Aaron şi-a întins mâna peste apele Egiptului; şi au ieşit broaştele şi au acoperit ţara Egiptului.

⁷ Dar şi vrăjitorii au făcut la fel prin vrăjitoriile lor: au scos şi ei broaşte peste toată ţara Egiptului.

⁸ Faraon a chemat pe Moise, şi pe Aaron, şi a zis: ,,Rugaţi-vă Domnului, să depărteze broaştele dela mine şi dela poporul meu; şi am să las pe popor să plece să aducă jertfe Domnului.``

⁹ Moise a zis lui Faraon: ,,Hotărăşte-mi, când să mă rog Domnului pentru tine, pentru slujitorii tăi şi pentru poporul tău, ca să îndepărteze broaştele dela tine şi din casele tale? Nu vor mai rămânea decât în râu.``

¹⁰ El a răspuns: ,,Mâne``. Şi Moise a zis: ,,Aşa va fi, ca să ştii că nimeni nu este ca Domnul, Dumnezeul nostru.

¹¹ Broaştele se vor depărta dela tine şi din casele tale, dela slujitorii tăi şi dela poporul tău; nu vor mai rămânea decât în râu.``

¹² Moise şi Aaron au ieşit de la Faraon. Şi Moise a strigat către Domnul cu privire la broaştele cu cari lovise pe Faraon.

¹³ Domnul a făcut cum cerea Moise; şi broaştele au pierit în case, în curţi şi în ogoare.

¹⁴ Le-au strâns grămezi, şi ţara s-a împuţit.

¹⁵ Faraon, văzând că are răgaz să răsufle în voie, şi-a împietrit inima, şi n-a ascultat de Moise şi de Aaron, după cum spuse Domnul.

¹⁶ Domnul a zis lui Moise: ,,Spune lui Aaron: ,Intinde-ţi toiagul, şi loveşte ţărâna pământului, şi se va preface în păduchi, în toată ţara Egiptului.``

¹⁷ Aşa au făcut. Aaron şi-a întins mâna cu toiagul, şi a lovit ţărâna pământului; şi s-a prefăcut în păduchi pe toţi oamenii şi pe toate dobitoacele. Toată ţărâna pământului s-a prefăcut în păduchi, în toată ţara Egiptului.

¹⁸ Vrăjitorii au căutat să facă şi ei păduchi prin vrăjitoriile lor; dar n-au putut. Păduchii erau pe oameni şi pe dobitoace.

¹⁹ Şi vrăjitorii au zis lui Faraon: ,,Aici este degetul lui Dumnezeu!`` Dar inima lui Faraon s-a împietrit, şi n-a ascultat de Moise şi de Aaron, după cum spusese Domnul.

²⁰ Domnul a zis lui Moise: ,,Scoală-te dis de dimineaţă, şi du-te înaintea lui Faraon, când are să iasă să se ducă la apă. Să-i spui: ,Aşa vorbeşte Domnul: ,Lasă pe poporul Meu să plece, ca să-Mi slujească.

²¹ Dacă nu vei lăsa pe poporul Meu să plece, am să trimet muşte câneşti împotriva ta, împotriva slijitorilor tăi, împotriva poporului tău şi împotriva caselor tale; casele Egiptenilor vor fi pline de muşte, şi pământul va fi acoperit de ele.

²² Dar, în ziua aceea voi deosebi ţinutul Gosen, unde locueşte poporul Meu, şi acolo nu vor fi muşte, pentruca să cunoşti că Eu, Domnul, sânt în mijlocul ţinutului acestuia.

²³ Voi face o deosebire între poporul Meu şi poporul tău. Semnul acesta va fi mâne.``

²⁴ Domnul a făcut aşa. A venit un roi de muşte câneşti în casa lui Faraon şi a slujitorilor lui, şi toată ţara Egiptului a fost pustiită de muşte câneşti.

²⁵ Faraon a chemat pe Moise şi pe Aaron, şi le-a zis: ,,Duceţi-vă de aduceţi jertfe Dumnezeului vostru aici în ţară.``

²⁶ Moise a răspuns: ,,Nu este deloc potrivit să facem aşa; căci am aduce Domnului, Dumnezeului nostru, jertfe, care sânt o urâciune pentru Egipteni. Şi dacă am aduce, subt ochii lor, jertfe cari sânt o urâciune pentru Egipteni, nu ne vor ucide ei oare cu pietre?

²⁷ Vom face mai bine un drum de trei zile în pustie, şi acolo vom aduce jertfe Domnului, Dumnezeului nostru, după cum ne va spune.``

²⁸ Faraon a zis: ,,Vă voi lăsa să plecaţi, ca să aduceţi jertfe Domnului, Dumnezeului vostru, în pustie; numai, să nu vă depărtaţi prea mult, dacă plecaţi. Rugaţi-vă pentru mine.``

²⁹ Moise a răspuns: ,,Am să ies dela tine, şi am să mă rog Domnului. Mâne, muştele se vor depărta dela Faraon, dela slujitorii lui, şi dela poporul lui. Dar, să nu ne mai înşele Faraon, ne vrând să lase pe popor să plece, ca să aducă jertfe Domnului.``

³⁰ Moise a ieşit dela Faraon, şi s-a rugat Domnului.

³¹ Domnul a făcut cum cerea Moise; şi muştele s-au depărtat dela Faraon, dela slujitorii lui, şi dela poporul lui. N-a mai rămas una.

³² Dar Faraon, şi de data aceasta, şi-a împietrit inima, şi n-a lăsat pe popor să plece.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":1909,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12819,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Frog","title_en":"Frog","content_ro":"<h3>FROG<\/h3>\nAquatic, tailless, smooth-skinned amphibian, mentioned in connection with the second plague in Egypt (Ex 8; Pss 78:45; 105:30; Rv 16:13). See<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FROG<\/h3>\nAquatic, tailless, smooth-skinned amphibian, mentioned in connection with the second plague in Egypt (Ex 8; Pss 78:45; 105:30; Rv 16:13). See<\/em> Animals.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FROG Aquatic, tailless, smooth-skinned amphibian, mentioned in connection with the second plague in Egypt (Ex 8; Pss 78:45; 105:30; Rv 16:13). See Animals.","summary_en":"FROG Aquatic, tailless, smooth-skinned amphibian, mentioned in connection with the second plague in Egypt (Ex 8; Pss 78:45; 105:30; Rv 16:13). See Animals.","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23895,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Magic","title_en":"Magic","content_ro":"<h3>MAGIC<\/h3>\nAttempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual.<\/p>\nThere are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices because God provides them with his personal revelation through his prophets. Human magical practices lead to either false hope or false fear and therefore lead away from the truth of God. Yet while magical practices cannot measure up to the accuracy of God’s prophet, the Bible does leave open the possibility that there may be supernatural reality behind some magical practices.<\/p>\nMagicians are prominent in the OT book of Exodus, where the magicians of Egypt contend with Moses. The text does not discount the success of the magicians as mere trickery, for they were at least partially successful at first (chs 7–8). But their failures begin to become clear in chapter 8 and continue through chapter 9. The Bible does not flatly deny that there may be certain evil supernatural power at work in the person of the magician. What the Bible does make clear is that this power is not in accord with, nor can it defeat, the will of God.<\/p>\nThe NT addresses the issue of magic in the book of Acts. When Philip went to Samaria, he encountered Simon the magician. Simon had drawn a great deal of attention to himself by amazing the people with his magic (Acts 8:11). Philip’s message was believed and people began to be drawn to him. Simon saw the wonders that Philip was able to perform and thought that these powers were received through the ritual of the laying on of hands. Philip made clear that the wonders of his work could not be purchased but came through the gracious gift of God to the penitent.<\/p>\nAnother important passage is found in Acts 19:11-20. Certain Jewish exorcists thought they could magically use the name of Jesus in their work. The result was violent reaction: the man in whom resided the evil spirit leaped on them, mastered all of them, and overpowered them, so that they fled out of that house naked and wounded. This passage shows that the power responsible for the apostolic miracles was based upon the personal relationship of the apostle with the Lord Jesus Christ. The result of the above incident is also important; it led the people of Ephesus to make a clear decision between the word of the Lord and their magical practices. Several who practiced magic arts brought their books together and burned them in the presence of everyone. This dramatic display of the power of God and the need for clear loyalty to him led to further expansion of the gospel.<\/p>\nThe biblical stand against magic is stated strongly in the last book of the Bible, where sorcerers are condemned to the lake of fire (Rv 21:8). The biblical view is consistent in its opposition to magic. The Bible does not preclude the possibility that Satan can use magic for evil purposes, and magical practices are condemned because they may lead to false hope or false fear and away from loyalty to God’s Word.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Amulet; Canaanite Deities and Religion; Frontlet; Omen; Soothsayer; Sorcery; Psychics.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAGIC<\/h3>\nAttempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual.<\/p>\nThere are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices because God provides them with his personal revelation through his prophets. Human magical practices lead to either false hope or false fear and therefore lead away from the truth of God. Yet while magical practices cannot measure up to the accuracy of God’s prophet, the Bible does leave open the possibility that there may be supernatural reality behind some magical practices.<\/p>\nMagicians are prominent in the OT book of Exodus, where the magicians of Egypt contend with Moses. The text does not discount the success of the magicians as mere trickery, for they were at least partially successful at first (chs 7–8). But their failures begin to become clear in chapter 8 and continue through chapter 9. The Bible does not flatly deny that there may be certain evil supernatural power at work in the person of the magician. What the Bible does make clear is that this power is not in accord with, nor can it defeat, the will of God.<\/p>\nThe NT addresses the issue of magic in the book of Acts. When Philip went to Samaria, he encountered Simon the magician. Simon had drawn a great deal of attention to himself by amazing the people with his magic (Acts 8:11). Philip’s message was believed and people began to be drawn to him. Simon saw the wonders that Philip was able to perform and thought that these powers were received through the ritual of the laying on of hands. Philip made clear that the wonders of his work could not be purchased but came through the gracious gift of God to the penitent.<\/p>\nAnother important passage is found in Acts 19:11-20. Certain Jewish exorcists thought they could magically use the name of Jesus in their work. The result was violent reaction: the man in whom resided the evil spirit leaped on them, mastered all of them, and overpowered them, so that they fled out of that house naked and wounded. This passage shows that the power responsible for the apostolic miracles was based upon the personal relationship of the apostle with the Lord Jesus Christ. The result of the above incident is also important; it led the people of Ephesus to make a clear decision between the word of the Lord and their magical practices. Several who practiced magic arts brought their books together and burned them in the presence of everyone. This dramatic display of the power of God and the need for clear loyalty to him led to further expansion of the gospel.<\/p>\nThe biblical stand against magic is stated strongly in the last book of the Bible, where sorcerers are condemned to the lake of fire (Rv 21:8). The biblical view is consistent in its opposition to magic. The Bible does not preclude the possibility that Satan can use magic for evil purposes, and magical practices are condemned because they may lead to false hope or false fear and away from loyalty to God’s Word.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Amulet; Canaanite Deities and Religion; Frontlet; Omen; Soothsayer; Sorcery; Psychics.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAGIC Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual. There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices be...","summary_en":"MAGIC Attempt to influence or control people or events through supernatural forces. These forces are called upon by means of ceremonies, the recitation of spells, charms, incantations, and other forms of ritual. There are a number of terms used in the Bible that might fall into the broad category of magic. Several of the words are mentioned in Deuteronomy 18:9-14. The use of magical and occult practices by Israel is not permitted. The people of God are instructed to avoid magical practices be...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37160,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Theocracy*","title_en":"Theocracy*","content_ro":"<h3>THEOCRACY*<\/h3>\nForm of government that acknowledges God alone as the highest political authority, whether or not he is represented by a human ruler such as a king. Thus, Deuteronomy 17:14-20 argues that a human king rules only as one designated for kingship by the Lord.<\/p>\nIn ancient Israel, the concept of theocratic government developed through several historical stages. A fundamental theological conception of the sons of Israel in Egypt involved the belief that Yahweh, their special God, cared enough about their plight to become personally involved in redeeming them from slavery and establishing them in freedom from all earthly rulers (specifically the pharaoh). They would then be able to serve him alone (see Ex 3:7-10; 8:1; 9:1). It is necessary to remember that the conditions of oppression described in Exodus were everyday features in the lives of Egyptian peasants. Living under the rulership of the pharaoh as a peasant implied oppression, unreasonable work assignments, loss of freedom and self-respect, and many other things. By contrast, life under the rulership of Yahweh came to signify freedom, justice, and equality.<\/p>\nUpon arriving in Canaan, the young tribes encountered a system of kingship widely different from the Egyptian model but equally opprobrious. Ancient Canaanite rulers normally owned the city-state they governed, and rented out at least some of the land to their subjects. But the Israelites who occupied Canaan under Joshua were meant to be free inhabitants of the territory allotted to them and subservient to God alone.<\/p>\nIn the period of the judges, the idea of theocracy continued to be expressed consistently and explicitly. The various groups comprising the “sons of Israel” were not welded together into a unified body by any external political structure. Rather, acceptance of the rulership of Yahweh alone continued to function as the foundational unifying element. Thus Gideon, when asked by some to accept kingship, could say in words acceptable to virtually all Israelites, “The Lord<\/span> shall rule over you” (Jgs 8:23).<\/p>\nIn this period, human leadership became necessary from time to time as threats arose to one or more of the tribes. These judges were regularly described as “raised up” for the specific task of averting immediate danger, but more specifically to lead the people back to the Lord (Jgs 2:16). But no judge was believed to have brought victory to Israel by means of his personal abilities. Yahweh alone was credited with having won the battle; hence, he deserved and received the loyalty of Israel.<\/p>\nSamuel bridges the time of the judges and a new era of monarchy in Israel. Philistine social and military pressure was confronting the Israelite theocratic government with a challenge of enormous proportions. For roughly 200 years preceding Samuel, the Israelites and the Philistines had coexisted, if not peaceably, at least short of open warfare. During the career of Samuel, however, the Philistines inaugurated a policy of open aggression toward Israel aimed at conquest and expansion. The tribal confederacy, which for years had successfully defended one or more tribal groups, now appeared incapable of resisting the Philistines. A new governmental structure had clearly become necessary. In the minds of many influential Israelites, only a kingdom headed by a king could enable Israel to survive (see 1 Sm 8:5, 19-20).<\/p>\nAt this point the concept of theocracy received a severe test. Politically and militarily, a king appeared to be a wise and necessary choice. But the tradition of theocratic rule was deeply ingrained. Samuel viewed the desire for a king as rejection of the rulership of Yahweh (1 Sm 8:10-18; 10:19). On the other hand, he also appears to have received a prophetic word concerning Saul and the willingness of God to have him anointed as king (9:27–10:1).<\/p>\nIn addition to his prophetic anointing, Saul also received a designation from “the spirit of God” (1 Sm 11:6), which closely paralleled the experiences of earlier judges. A third ingredient to Saul’s claim to kingship was added when the people acclaimed him following a military victory over the Ammonites. Apart from the clarity of the biblical tradition that two opinions of kingship were represented among Israelites, clearly God chose the king and revealed his choice through his messenger-prophet.<\/p>\nOne day God’s people would no longer need a human king to rule them. This is portrayed in the book of Ezekiel (Ez 40–48), in which God would rule his people through the Zadokite priesthood. This began to be implemented through the work of Haggai and Zechariah in 520 BC<\/span>. This was a particularly important feature of postexilic life and imparted a distinctive character to the Judean community. The work of Ezra made the theocracy normative for Judaism, and thereafter the priesthood exercised an important role in national life. Although the people were subjected to human rule under the Seleucids, they looked for the true king, a descendant of David. This man, the Messiah, would be the peaceful prince who would redeem Israel and bring the ancient covenantal values of justice, righteousness, and equity to fruition.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> King.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>THEOCRACY*<\/h3>\nForm of government that acknowledges God alone as the highest political authority, whether or not he is represented by a human ruler such as a king. Thus, Deuteronomy 17:14-20 argues that a human king rules only as one designated for kingship by the Lord.<\/p>\nIn ancient Israel, the concept of theocratic government developed through several historical stages. A fundamental theological conception of the sons of Israel in Egypt involved the belief that Yahweh, their special God, cared enough about their plight to become personally involved in redeeming them from slavery and establishing them in freedom from all earthly rulers (specifically the pharaoh). They would then be able to serve him alone (see Ex 3:7-10; 8:1; 9:1). It is necessary to remember that the conditions of oppression described in Exodus were everyday features in the lives of Egyptian peasants. Living under the rulership of the pharaoh as a peasant implied oppression, unreasonable work assignments, loss of freedom and self-respect, and many other things. By contrast, life under the rulership of Yahweh came to signify freedom, justice, and equality.<\/p>\nUpon arriving in Canaan, the young tribes encountered a system of kingship widely different from the Egyptian model but equally opprobrious. Ancient Canaanite rulers normally owned the city-state they governed, and rented out at least some of the land to their subjects. But the Israelites who occupied Canaan under Joshua were meant to be free inhabitants of the territory allotted to them and subservient to God alone.<\/p>\nIn the period of the judges, the idea of theocracy continued to be expressed consistently and explicitly. The various groups comprising the “sons of Israel” were not welded together into a unified body by any external political structure. Rather, acceptance of the rulership of Yahweh alone continued to function as the foundational unifying element. Thus Gideon, when asked by some to accept kingship, could say in words acceptable to virtually all Israelites, “The Lord<\/span> shall rule over you” (Jgs 8:23).<\/p>\nIn this period, human leadership became necessary from time to time as threats arose to one or more of the tribes. These judges were regularly described as “raised up” for the specific task of averting immediate danger, but more specifically to lead the people back to the Lord (Jgs 2:16). But no judge was believed to have brought victory to Israel by means of his personal abilities. Yahweh alone was credited with having won the battle; hence, he deserved and received the loyalty of Israel.<\/p>\nSamuel bridges the time of the judges and a new era of monarchy in Israel. Philistine social and military pressure was confronting the Israelite theocratic government with a challenge of enormous proportions. For roughly 200 years preceding Samuel, the Israelites and the Philistines had coexisted, if not peaceably, at least short of open warfare. During the career of Samuel, however, the Philistines inaugurated a policy of open aggression toward Israel aimed at conquest and expansion. The tribal confederacy, which for years had successfully defended one or more tribal groups, now appeared incapable of resisting the Philistines. A new governmental structure had clearly become necessary. In the minds of many influential Israelites, only a kingdom headed by a king could enable Israel to survive (see 1 Sm 8:5, 19-20).<\/p>\nAt this point the concept of theocracy received a severe test. Politically and militarily, a king appeared to be a wise and necessary choice. But the tradition of theocratic rule was deeply ingrained. Samuel viewed the desire for a king as rejection of the rulership of Yahweh (1 Sm 8:10-18; 10:19). On the other hand, he also appears to have received a prophetic word concerning Saul and the willingness of God to have him anointed as king (9:27–10:1).<\/p>\nIn addition to his prophetic anointing, Saul also received a designation from “the spirit of God” (1 Sm 11:6), which closely paralleled the experiences of earlier judges. A third ingredient to Saul’s claim to kingship was added when the people acclaimed him following a military victory over the Ammonites. Apart from the clarity of the biblical tradition that two opinions of kingship were represented among Israelites, clearly God chose the king and revealed his choice through his messenger-prophet.<\/p>\nOne day God’s people would no longer need a human king to rule them. This is portrayed in the book of Ezekiel (Ez 40–48), in which God would rule his people through the Zadokite priesthood. This began to be implemented through the work of Haggai and Zechariah in 520 BC<\/span>. This was a particularly important feature of postexilic life and imparted a distinctive character to the Judean community. The work of Ezra made the theocracy normative for Judaism, and thereafter the priesthood exercised an important role in national life. Although the people were subjected to human rule under the Seleucids, they looked for the true king, a descendant of David. This man, the Messiah, would be the peaceful prince who would redeem Israel and bring the ancient covenantal values of justice, righteousness, and equity to fruition.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> King.<\/p>","summary_ro":"THEOCRACY* Form of government that acknowledges God alone as the highest political authority, whether or not he is represented by a human ruler such as a king. Thus, Deuteronomy 17:14-20 argues that a human king rules only as one designated for kingship by the Lord. In ancient Israel, the concept of theocratic government developed through several historical stages. A fundamental theological conception of the sons of Israel in Egypt involved the belief that Yahweh, their special God, cared eno...","summary_en":"THEOCRACY* Form of government that acknowledges God alone as the highest political authority, whether or not he is represented by a human ruler such as a king. Thus, Deuteronomy 17:14-20 argues that a human king rules only as one designated for kingship by the Lord. In ancient Israel, the concept of theocratic government developed through several historical stages. A fundamental theological conception of the sons of Israel in Egypt involved the belief that Yahweh, their special God, cared eno...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43688,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:1","content_ro":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","content_en":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","summary_en":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71314,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:1","content_ro":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","content_en":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","summary_en":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98940,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:1","content_ro":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","content_en":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","summary_en":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126566,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:1","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:1","content_ro":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","content_en":"8:1-15<\/strong> The second plague was the plague of frogs<\/em> (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","summary_en":"8:1-15 The second plague was the plague of frogs (8:2). The Egyptians gave special reverence to amphibians because of their ability to live in two different worlds; Egyptians were deeply concerned with survival in the next world, after death. God showed that frogs have no special hold on life. This plague is sometimes said to have been a natural result of whatever happened to make the Nile River uninhabitable. However, the extent of the plague was more than a natural result.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60299,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87925,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115551,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143177,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":5635,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bread","title_en":"Bread","content_ro":"<h3>BREAD<\/h3>\nFood made from the dough of flour or meal from grain.<\/p>\nKinds of Seed Used in Making Bread<\/p>\nThe Bible tells us that wheat, barley, rye, beans, lentils, millet, and manna were used in making bread.<\/p>\n<h5>Wheat<\/h5>\nWheat is mentioned frequently in Scripture (about 48 uses of four Hebrew words in the OT; 14 uses of one Greek word in the NT). The hard winter grain (Triticum aestivuum)<\/em> remains the most popular with farmers of Palestine, who still sow in the fall and reap in the following summer.<\/p>\n<h5>Barley<\/h5>\nBarley matures faster and produces more prolifically than wheat. The hail plague in Egypt destroyed the barley crop because it had ripened; at the same time wheat and rye had not matured (Ex 9:31-32). Barley is mentioned 32 times in the OT. Barley produced a crop even in time of famine (Ru 1:22; 2:17, 23; 3:2, 15, 17) and sold cheaper than wheat (2 Kgs 7:1, 16). Poorer people depended on barley. The boy who contributed his lunch to Jesus to feed 5,000 had barley bread (Jn 6:9, 13). Palestinians fed barley to cattle (1 Kgs 4:28). Barley on the stalk carries a larger husk with a long, wiry hair (thus the name in Hebrew means “long hair”), making chaff separation more difficult. The greater likelihood of extraneous matter in the flour, combined with the less-liked flavor, made barley cheaper.<\/p>\n<h5>Rye<\/h5>\n“Rye” translates a Hebrew word appearing in various versions as “vetch,” “fitches,” or “spelt” (Ex 9:32; Is 28:25; Ez 4:9). A hardy grass, it produces a crop even on poor soil. Rye bread gained popularity in northern Europe and to some degree in Egypt (Ex 9:32). Isaiah 28:24-28 summarizes the farmers’ work in growing and threshing various seed crops. Jews occasionally made bread from rye (Ez 4:9), but normally used it for cattle feed.<\/p>\n<h5>Other Seeds<\/h5>\nBeans, lentils, and millet were ground and mixed to make a bread, along with wheat, barley, and spelt (Ez 4:9). The prophet Ezekiel ate this concoction as a sign of the “defiled bread” the Jews would eat in captivity among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<h5>Manna<\/h5>\nNumbers 11:8 tells us that the people ground the manna in mills or beat it in a mortar and baked it in pans and made loaves of bread. However, in its prime state God called it bread (see Ex 16:4-32). It appeared as coriander seed (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7); therefore, the dull white grains were smaller than wheat. The Hebrews complained they had not bread, and their souls hated “this light bread” (Nm 21:5, kjv<\/span>). The psalmist called it “the bread of the angels” (Ps 78:25).<\/p>\nEquipment Used in Making Bread<\/p>\nBas-reliefs in Egyptian mastaba tombs illustrate most of the equipment used in ancient Near Eastern bakeries.<\/p>\n<h5>Sieve<\/h5>\nA wicker strainerlike device helped separate small impurities from the grain.<\/p>\n<h5>Grindstones<\/h5>\nA pair of stones were shaped so that a top stone turned against the bottom stone, crushing grain into flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Jars<\/h5>\nClay jars contained olive oil, water, and liquid leaven to be mixed with the flour to make dough (Lv 2:4; 1 Kgs 17:12-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Bowls<\/h5>\nKneading bowls (Ex 8:3; 12:34; Dt 28:5, 17), boards or tables made of wood, provided space for a thorough mixing of ingredients.<\/p>\n<h5>Pans<\/h5>\nThe poor used heated flat stones or the inside walls of their ovens as baking pans. Most people used iron griddles, plates, or pans (Lv 2:5; 6:21; 7:9; Nm 11:8; 1 Chr 9:31; 23:29; 2 Chr 35:13; Ez 4:3). These were often flat, with handles up to five feet (1.5 meters) long. The dough placed on the griddle was ready for the heat.<\/p>\n<h5>Ovens<\/h5>\nSometimes ovens had a chamber separated from the fire, but usually not. A fire of wood, dried grass (Mt 6:30), or dung (Ez 4:12, 15) heated the oven (Lv 2:4; 7:9; 11:35; 26:26; Hos 7:4-7). While the coals and oven walls retained their heat, the plate carrying bread was inserted. Flat, hard unleavened cakes, or small leavened cakes (Mt 14:17; Mk 6:38; Lk 9:13) were done in a few minutes. Large loaves about one foot in diameter would swell to more than three inches (7.6 centimeters) thick, would weigh more than two pounds (.9 kilogram), and required about 45 minutes for baking (1 Sm 17:17; 2 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Meals, Significance of; Bread of the Presence; Leaven; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BREAD<\/h3>\nFood made from the dough of flour or meal from grain.<\/p>\nKinds of Seed Used in Making Bread<\/p>\nThe Bible tells us that wheat, barley, rye, beans, lentils, millet, and manna were used in making bread.<\/p>\n<h5>Wheat<\/h5>\nWheat is mentioned frequently in Scripture (about 48 uses of four Hebrew words in the OT; 14 uses of one Greek word in the NT). The hard winter grain (Triticum aestivuum)<\/em> remains the most popular with farmers of Palestine, who still sow in the fall and reap in the following summer.<\/p>\n<h5>Barley<\/h5>\nBarley matures faster and produces more prolifically than wheat. The hail plague in Egypt destroyed the barley crop because it had ripened; at the same time wheat and rye had not matured (Ex 9:31-32). Barley is mentioned 32 times in the OT. Barley produced a crop even in time of famine (Ru 1:22; 2:17, 23; 3:2, 15, 17) and sold cheaper than wheat (2 Kgs 7:1, 16). Poorer people depended on barley. The boy who contributed his lunch to Jesus to feed 5,000 had barley bread (Jn 6:9, 13). Palestinians fed barley to cattle (1 Kgs 4:28). Barley on the stalk carries a larger husk with a long, wiry hair (thus the name in Hebrew means “long hair”), making chaff separation more difficult. The greater likelihood of extraneous matter in the flour, combined with the less-liked flavor, made barley cheaper.<\/p>\n<h5>Rye<\/h5>\n“Rye” translates a Hebrew word appearing in various versions as “vetch,” “fitches,” or “spelt” (Ex 9:32; Is 28:25; Ez 4:9). A hardy grass, it produces a crop even on poor soil. Rye bread gained popularity in northern Europe and to some degree in Egypt (Ex 9:32). Isaiah 28:24-28 summarizes the farmers’ work in growing and threshing various seed crops. Jews occasionally made bread from rye (Ez 4:9), but normally used it for cattle feed.<\/p>\n<h5>Other Seeds<\/h5>\nBeans, lentils, and millet were ground and mixed to make a bread, along with wheat, barley, and spelt (Ez 4:9). The prophet Ezekiel ate this concoction as a sign of the “defiled bread” the Jews would eat in captivity among the Gentiles.<\/p>\n<h5>Manna<\/h5>\nNumbers 11:8 tells us that the people ground the manna in mills or beat it in a mortar and baked it in pans and made loaves of bread. However, in its prime state God called it bread (see Ex 16:4-32). It appeared as coriander seed (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:7); therefore, the dull white grains were smaller than wheat. The Hebrews complained they had not bread, and their souls hated “this light bread” (Nm 21:5, kjv<\/span>). The psalmist called it “the bread of the angels” (Ps 78:25).<\/p>\nEquipment Used in Making Bread<\/p>\nBas-reliefs in Egyptian mastaba tombs illustrate most of the equipment used in ancient Near Eastern bakeries.<\/p>\n<h5>Sieve<\/h5>\nA wicker strainerlike device helped separate small impurities from the grain.<\/p>\n<h5>Grindstones<\/h5>\nA pair of stones were shaped so that a top stone turned against the bottom stone, crushing grain into flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Jars<\/h5>\nClay jars contained olive oil, water, and liquid leaven to be mixed with the flour to make dough (Lv 2:4; 1 Kgs 17:12-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Bowls<\/h5>\nKneading bowls (Ex 8:3; 12:34; Dt 28:5, 17), boards or tables made of wood, provided space for a thorough mixing of ingredients.<\/p>\n<h5>Pans<\/h5>\nThe poor used heated flat stones or the inside walls of their ovens as baking pans. Most people used iron griddles, plates, or pans (Lv 2:5; 6:21; 7:9; Nm 11:8; 1 Chr 9:31; 23:29; 2 Chr 35:13; Ez 4:3). These were often flat, with handles up to five feet (1.5 meters) long. The dough placed on the griddle was ready for the heat.<\/p>\n<h5>Ovens<\/h5>\nSometimes ovens had a chamber separated from the fire, but usually not. A fire of wood, dried grass (Mt 6:30), or dung (Ez 4:12, 15) heated the oven (Lv 2:4; 7:9; 11:35; 26:26; Hos 7:4-7). While the coals and oven walls retained their heat, the plate carrying bread was inserted. Flat, hard unleavened cakes, or small leavened cakes (Mt 14:17; Mk 6:38; Lk 9:13) were done in a few minutes. Large loaves about one foot in diameter would swell to more than three inches (7.6 centimeters) thick, would weigh more than two pounds (.9 kilogram), and required about 45 minutes for baking (1 Sm 17:17; 2 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Meals, Significance of; Bread of the Presence; Leaven; Unleavened Bread.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BREAD Food made from the dough of flour or meal from grain. Kinds of Seed Used in Making Bread The Bible tells us that wheat, barley, rye, beans, lentils, millet, and manna were used in making bread. Wheat Wheat is mentioned frequently in Scripture (about 48 uses of four Hebrew words in the OT; 14 uses of one Greek word in the NT). The hard winter grain (Triticum aestivuum) remains the most popular with farmers of Palestine, who still sow in the fall and reap in the following summer. Barley B...","summary_en":"BREAD Food made from the dough of flour or meal from grain. Kinds of Seed Used in Making Bread The Bible tells us that wheat, barley, rye, beans, lentils, millet, and manna were used in making bread. Wheat Wheat is mentioned frequently in Scripture (about 48 uses of four Hebrew words in the OT; 14 uses of one Greek word in the NT). The hard winter grain (Triticum aestivuum) remains the most popular with farmers of Palestine, who still sow in the fall and reap in the following summer. Barley B...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12924,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Furniture","title_en":"Furniture","content_ro":"<h3>FURNITURE<\/h3>\nItems of material culture used in homes, palaces, and temples. Because of its close geographical proximity to other nations, Israel had extensive contact with neighboring cultures. Historical surveys document parallels between the furniture of Israel and that of other tribes and countries.<\/p>\nPalestine in Old Testament Times<\/p>\nOT passages supply most of the information about furniture in ancient Palestine, although there are also significant archaeological data. There are many references to beds in the OT, using at least three Hebrew nouns. Jacob is pictured as sitting up in bed (Gn 48:2) and as dying on his bed (49:33). Moses threatened that frogs would invade the bedroom and bed of the Egyptian pharaoh (Ex 8:3). Michal, Saul’s daughter, placed an effigy in David’s bed (1 Sm 19:11-17) when Saul sent messengers to capture him there. King David condemned the practice of killing a defenseless person sleeping in bed (2 Sm 4:7, 11). The prophet Elijah laid a dead boy on his bed and revived him (1 Kgs 17:19).<\/p>\nKing Ahab sulked on his bed (1 Kgs 21:4), and King Ahaziah lay on his sick bed (2 Kgs 1:4-6, 16). The prophet Amos criticized the rich who lay on beds of ivory and stretched out on their couches (Am 6:4). The prophet Ezekiel spoke symbolically of disobedient Jerusalem as a prostitute sitting on a stately couch with the Lord’s incense and oil on a table nearby (Ez 23:41). Isaiah promised that the righteous would rest in their beds (Is 57:2) and also spoke of the unrighteous setting their beds among false worshipers (vv 7-8). The psalmist flooded his bed with tears (Ps 6:6), and Proverbs refers to a sluggard on his bed (Prv 26:14).<\/p>\n“Table” in the OT refers both to the temple table for the bread of the Presence and to the table used in the palace or home for meals or banquets. King Adoni-bezek had his captives scrambling for scraps under his table (Jgs 1:7). Jonathan’s disabled son Mephibosheth was allowed to sit at David’s table (2 Sm 9:7, 10-13; 19:28). Solomon’s table is described several times (1 Kgs 2:7; 4:27). The queen of Sheba was particularly impressed by the food and table service in Solomon’s palace (10:5). The prophets frequently refer to tables (Is 21:5; 28:8; 65:11; Ez 40:39-43). The few references to chairs describe people reclining at meals and indicate couches rather than actual chairs (Am 6:4).<\/p>\nThere are numerous mentions of thrones, including those of the pharaoh (Gn 41:40; Ex 11:5), David (2 Sm 3:10; 7:13), Solomon (1 Kgs 10:18), the kings of Israel and Judah (1 Kgs 22:10), and God (1 Kgs 22:19; Pss 9:4, 7; 11:4; 93:2). The OT writers sometimes indicate thrones decorated with ivory (1 Kgs 10:18).<\/p>\nThe exact character of furniture in Palestine is difficult to determine. Bas-reliefs and wall paintings are more common among Israel’s neighbors. Excavations in Jericho, however, have unearthed some valuable archaeological clues. Tombs of the middle Bronze Age produced reasonably well-preserved tables, stools, and boxes, making possible a study of ancient joinery methods. A variety of small trinket boxes show evidence of bone inlay and incised decoration. Some large slabs of timber may have been beds. Although primarily Canaanite styles, the furniture reflects the household furniture used in Israel in the centuries to follow.<\/p>\nGreek and Roman<\/p>\nHistorians are quite informed about Greek furniture because of the abundance of decorated vases, bas-reliefs, bronze and terra-cotta statuettes, and literary descriptions. That archaeological evidence indicates that Greek furniture was influenced by preceding civilizations. The picture is generally one of comparative simplicity, far removed from the cluttered and crowded rooms of later civilizations.<\/p>\nThe Greeks made several types of seats: (1) the throne, often with a back, legs of various shapes, and armrests; (2) the lighter curved-back chair with arm supports; (3) the four-legged stool; (4) the folding stool with crossed legs traceable to Egyptian models; and (5) the bench. Representations that regularly appear on monuments dating from the eighth to the second century BC<\/span> link Greek chairs to Egyptian and Assyrian prototypes.<\/p>\nGreeks used couches for sleeping and for reclining at meals. Footstools were used to rest the feet or as a step up to higher couches. Like chair legs, couch legs varied in style. Some were carved in the shape of animal legs, some were turned, some were rectangular. From about the sixth century BC<\/span>, the legs projected above the frame. Such projections later became headboards and footboards. In Hellenistic times these headrests and footrests were carved and carried bronze medallions in high relief depicting children, satyrs, and animals. Turned legs replaced the rectangular ones. Couches were normally in wood, although bronze and marble couches are known.<\/p>\nTables were used during meals to hold dishes and food and were removed after the meal. They were made of wood, bronze, and marble and normally had four legs, but three-legged tables were occasionally used. Chests, large and small, served to store clothes, jewelry, and other articles. They were normally of wood, although some were bronze.<\/p>\nRome<\/p>\nRoman furniture continued many Greek patterns. The eruption of the volcano Vesuvius in AD<\/span> 79 preserved actual pieces of Roman furniture in its lava flow.<\/p>\nChairs with backs were heavier than their Greek counterparts and widely used. There were several types of stools: the folding stool, mostly wooden, though sometimes metal; and a newly developed decorative stool, often of bronze, that was supported by four curved legs ornamented with scrolls.<\/p>\nA variety of couches were in use. Some followed Greek models, but others were of Roman invention. Excellent examples of bronze bed frames have been preserved. Presumably, interlaced strips of leather or cords were stretched crisscross on the frame. Gold, silver, tortoiseshell, bone, and ivory decoration were used along with veneer work in rare timber. Later, couches in Italy and in other lands had high backs and sides. The Romans seem to have used tables more widely than Greeks. They appear often as permanent supports for vases and other possessions. Tables were normally rectangular with four legs, but table makers also constructed some with three legs, or even resting on a single support. Round tabletops and legs of animals became popular from the fourth century BC<\/span> on. Plain, undecorated wooden tables and benches were used in kitchens and workshops. Outdoor tables were usually of marble with carved animal legs or decorative figures of animals and monsters.<\/p>\nThere were various chests and boxes in daily use. Shelves and cupboards became much more popular than in Greek times.<\/p>\nPalestine in New Testament Times<\/p>\nThe nature of furniture in the NT is probably best understood in relation to contemporaneous Roman models. The NT refers to beds in several passages. People brought a paralytic lying on his bed to Jesus (Mt 9:2, 6; Lk 5:18). When the apostles went into Solomon’s portico, people brought the sick to them on beds (Acts 5:15). A Syro-Phoenician woman’s sick child lay on a bed (Mk 7:30). Jesus spoke of setting a lamp on a stand and not placing it under a bed (Mk 4:21; Lk 8:16), and described what would happen to people in bed when the Day of the Lord came (Lk 17:34). In another parable Jesus spoke of a needy person begging for bread at midnight from a friend who was already in bed with his family (Lk 11:7). Beds of the poor and sick were probably only pallets or mattresses (Mk 6:55; Jn 5:8). When people reclined at meals, they would have been lying on a couch (Jn 13:23).<\/p>\nThere are numerous NT references to tables. Jesus mentioned crumbs falling from a rich man’s table (Mt 15:27; Mk 7:28; Lk 16:21). Jesus overthrew the money changers’ tables in the temple (Mt 21:12; Mk 11:15). Jesus sat with his disciples at a table for the Passover meal (Lk 22:21) and promised his disciples that they would sit at his table in God’s kingdom. The apostles were relieved of serving tables in order to preach (Acts 6:2).<\/p>\nThe household lamp is referred to a number of times (Mt 25:1; Mk 4:21). Terra-cotta domestic lamps have been found in abundance in excavations.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FURNITURE<\/h3>\nItems of material culture used in homes, palaces, and temples. Because of its close geographical proximity to other nations, Israel had extensive contact with neighboring cultures. Historical surveys document parallels between the furniture of Israel and that of other tribes and countries.<\/p>\nPalestine in Old Testament Times<\/p>\nOT passages supply most of the information about furniture in ancient Palestine, although there are also significant archaeological data. There are many references to beds in the OT, using at least three Hebrew nouns. Jacob is pictured as sitting up in bed (Gn 48:2) and as dying on his bed (49:33). Moses threatened that frogs would invade the bedroom and bed of the Egyptian pharaoh (Ex 8:3). Michal, Saul’s daughter, placed an effigy in David’s bed (1 Sm 19:11-17) when Saul sent messengers to capture him there. King David condemned the practice of killing a defenseless person sleeping in bed (2 Sm 4:7, 11). The prophet Elijah laid a dead boy on his bed and revived him (1 Kgs 17:19).<\/p>\nKing Ahab sulked on his bed (1 Kgs 21:4), and King Ahaziah lay on his sick bed (2 Kgs 1:4-6, 16). The prophet Amos criticized the rich who lay on beds of ivory and stretched out on their couches (Am 6:4). The prophet Ezekiel spoke symbolically of disobedient Jerusalem as a prostitute sitting on a stately couch with the Lord’s incense and oil on a table nearby (Ez 23:41). Isaiah promised that the righteous would rest in their beds (Is 57:2) and also spoke of the unrighteous setting their beds among false worshipers (vv 7-8). The psalmist flooded his bed with tears (Ps 6:6), and Proverbs refers to a sluggard on his bed (Prv 26:14).<\/p>\n“Table” in the OT refers both to the temple table for the bread of the Presence and to the table used in the palace or home for meals or banquets. King Adoni-bezek had his captives scrambling for scraps under his table (Jgs 1:7). Jonathan’s disabled son Mephibosheth was allowed to sit at David’s table (2 Sm 9:7, 10-13; 19:28). Solomon’s table is described several times (1 Kgs 2:7; 4:27). The queen of Sheba was particularly impressed by the food and table service in Solomon’s palace (10:5). The prophets frequently refer to tables (Is 21:5; 28:8; 65:11; Ez 40:39-43). The few references to chairs describe people reclining at meals and indicate couches rather than actual chairs (Am 6:4).<\/p>\nThere are numerous mentions of thrones, including those of the pharaoh (Gn 41:40; Ex 11:5), David (2 Sm 3:10; 7:13), Solomon (1 Kgs 10:18), the kings of Israel and Judah (1 Kgs 22:10), and God (1 Kgs 22:19; Pss 9:4, 7; 11:4; 93:2). The OT writers sometimes indicate thrones decorated with ivory (1 Kgs 10:18).<\/p>\nThe exact character of furniture in Palestine is difficult to determine. Bas-reliefs and wall paintings are more common among Israel’s neighbors. Excavations in Jericho, however, have unearthed some valuable archaeological clues. Tombs of the middle Bronze Age produced reasonably well-preserved tables, stools, and boxes, making possible a study of ancient joinery methods. A variety of small trinket boxes show evidence of bone inlay and incised decoration. Some large slabs of timber may have been beds. Although primarily Canaanite styles, the furniture reflects the household furniture used in Israel in the centuries to follow.<\/p>\nGreek and Roman<\/p>\nHistorians are quite informed about Greek furniture because of the abundance of decorated vases, bas-reliefs, bronze and terra-cotta statuettes, and literary descriptions. That archaeological evidence indicates that Greek furniture was influenced by preceding civilizations. The picture is generally one of comparative simplicity, far removed from the cluttered and crowded rooms of later civilizations.<\/p>\nThe Greeks made several types of seats: (1) the throne, often with a back, legs of various shapes, and armrests; (2) the lighter curved-back chair with arm supports; (3) the four-legged stool; (4) the folding stool with crossed legs traceable to Egyptian models; and (5) the bench. Representations that regularly appear on monuments dating from the eighth to the second century BC<\/span> link Greek chairs to Egyptian and Assyrian prototypes.<\/p>\nGreeks used couches for sleeping and for reclining at meals. Footstools were used to rest the feet or as a step up to higher couches. Like chair legs, couch legs varied in style. Some were carved in the shape of animal legs, some were turned, some were rectangular. From about the sixth century BC<\/span>, the legs projected above the frame. Such projections later became headboards and footboards. In Hellenistic times these headrests and footrests were carved and carried bronze medallions in high relief depicting children, satyrs, and animals. Turned legs replaced the rectangular ones. Couches were normally in wood, although bronze and marble couches are known.<\/p>\nTables were used during meals to hold dishes and food and were removed after the meal. They were made of wood, bronze, and marble and normally had four legs, but three-legged tables were occasionally used. Chests, large and small, served to store clothes, jewelry, and other articles. They were normally of wood, although some were bronze.<\/p>\nRome<\/p>\nRoman furniture continued many Greek patterns. The eruption of the volcano Vesuvius in AD<\/span> 79 preserved actual pieces of Roman furniture in its lava flow.<\/p>\nChairs with backs were heavier than their Greek counterparts and widely used. There were several types of stools: the folding stool, mostly wooden, though sometimes metal; and a newly developed decorative stool, often of bronze, that was supported by four curved legs ornamented with scrolls.<\/p>\nA variety of couches were in use. Some followed Greek models, but others were of Roman invention. Excellent examples of bronze bed frames have been preserved. Presumably, interlaced strips of leather or cords were stretched crisscross on the frame. Gold, silver, tortoiseshell, bone, and ivory decoration were used along with veneer work in rare timber. Later, couches in Italy and in other lands had high backs and sides. The Romans seem to have used tables more widely than Greeks. They appear often as permanent supports for vases and other possessions. Tables were normally rectangular with four legs, but table makers also constructed some with three legs, or even resting on a single support. Round tabletops and legs of animals became popular from the fourth century BC<\/span> on. Plain, undecorated wooden tables and benches were used in kitchens and workshops. Outdoor tables were usually of marble with carved animal legs or decorative figures of animals and monsters.<\/p>\nThere were various chests and boxes in daily use. Shelves and cupboards became much more popular than in Greek times.<\/p>\nPalestine in New Testament Times<\/p>\nThe nature of furniture in the NT is probably best understood in relation to contemporaneous Roman models. The NT refers to beds in several passages. People brought a paralytic lying on his bed to Jesus (Mt 9:2, 6; Lk 5:18). When the apostles went into Solomon’s portico, people brought the sick to them on beds (Acts 5:15). A Syro-Phoenician woman’s sick child lay on a bed (Mk 7:30). Jesus spoke of setting a lamp on a stand and not placing it under a bed (Mk 4:21; Lk 8:16), and described what would happen to people in bed when the Day of the Lord came (Lk 17:34). In another parable Jesus spoke of a needy person begging for bread at midnight from a friend who was already in bed with his family (Lk 11:7). Beds of the poor and sick were probably only pallets or mattresses (Mk 6:55; Jn 5:8). When people reclined at meals, they would have been lying on a couch (Jn 13:23).<\/p>\nThere are numerous NT references to tables. Jesus mentioned crumbs falling from a rich man’s table (Mt 15:27; Mk 7:28; Lk 16:21). Jesus overthrew the money changers’ tables in the temple (Mt 21:12; Mk 11:15). Jesus sat with his disciples at a table for the Passover meal (Lk 22:21) and promised his disciples that they would sit at his table in God’s kingdom. The apostles were relieved of serving tables in order to preach (Acts 6:2).<\/p>\nThe household lamp is referred to a number of times (Mt 25:1; Mk 4:21). Terra-cotta domestic lamps have been found in abundance in excavations.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FURNITURE Items of material culture used in homes, palaces, and temples. Because of its close geographical proximity to other nations, Israel had extensive contact with neighboring cultures. Historical surveys document parallels between the furniture of Israel and that of other tribes and countries. Palestine in Old Testament Times OT passages supply most of the information about furniture in ancient Palestine, although there are also significant archaeological data. There are many references...","summary_en":"FURNITURE Items of material culture used in homes, palaces, and temples. Because of its close geographical proximity to other nations, Israel had extensive contact with neighboring cultures. Historical surveys document parallels between the furniture of Israel and that of other tribes and countries. Palestine in Old Testament Times OT passages supply most of the information about furniture in ancient Palestine, although there are also significant archaeological data. There are many references...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27578,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nile River","title_en":"Nile River","content_ro":"<h3>NILE RIVER<\/h3>\nLife-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers).<\/p>\nThe origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the Nile was simply “the river.” The Egyptians found it hard to conceive of any river different from the Nile, so when they reached the Euphrates, they assumed it was running backward, since it flowed south, whereas the Nile flows north.<\/p>\nUnusual Features<\/p>\nAmong the characteristics that distinguish the Nile are its six cataracts, areas where the river has failed to erode a clear channel through hard rock formations. These are numbered from north to south, in order of their discovery by modern explorers. The first cataract is at Aswan in Egypt, near the famous islands of Elephantine and Philae. The other five cataracts lie in the Sudan, with the second just above the city of Wadi Halfa.<\/p>\nAnother distinguishing feature of the Nile is that it flows from south to north. This was of importance to Egyptian river transport, for sailing vessels could take advantage of the prevailing north wind for going upstream, while the current propelled travelers downstream.<\/p>\nThe Nile River determined the three seasons of about four months each: (1) inundation (mid-July to mid-November); (2) winter (mid-November to mid-March); (3) summer (mid-March to mid-July).<\/p>\nThe inundation culminated in late October, softening the soil of the agricultural land for planting.<\/p>\nCourse and Tributaries<\/p>\nThe Nile has two main streams named for their respective colors, the White Nile and the Blue Nile. These streams owe their existence to the annual rains in equatorial Africa.<\/p>\nThe White Nile has its origin in the lake country. Lake Victoria is usually said to be its source, but some geographers pinpoint the source as a little stream that flows into the lake. The only outlet at Lake Victoria is the Victoria Nile, northeast of the lake at Ripon Falls.<\/p>\nThe most important junction of the river is at Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile are united. At this point one can often clearly see the color difference in the waters of the two rivers.<\/p>\nThe Blue Nile, only about 850 miles (1,367.7 kilometers) long, originates at Lake Tana in the highlands of Ethiopia. A much more precipitous stream than the White Nile, it is also dependent upon the rainy season in the high country. The White Nile begins its flooding first, but when the onrush of the Blue Nile sets in, it holds in check the water of the White Nile. During flood season, the Blue Nile has twice the volume of the White Nile and provides the greater part of the alluvium that built up the soil of Egypt.<\/p>\nTo the north of Khartoum is the sixth cataract, the first of the natural barriers. The Atbara, the last tributary of the Nile, enters from the east. At the fourth cataract, near Napata, is a group of cemeteries and ruins associated with the Ethiopian or Kushite (25th) dynasty of Egypt. Farther downstream is the important archaeological site of Kerma, where the Egyptians maintained a trading post during the Middle Kingdom.<\/p>\nDownstream from the second cataract is the celebrated temple of Abu Simbel, the work of Ramses II, with the smaller temple honoring Nefertari, his wife. These temples were moved to the cliff above their original position before Lake Nasser engulfed the site.<\/p>\nJust above Aswan and the first cataract is the new High Dam and the older Aswan Dam. Between the two dams is the island of Philae, with its well-known temples. A short distance above the Delta lies Cairo and the Giza pyramids, and farther south are the ruins of Memphis, the first capital of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe Delta measures some 125 by 115 miles (201.1 by 185.0 kilometers). Seven ancient streams of the Nile found their way into the sea, but there are only two modern ones: the Rosetta on the west, which gave the name to the Rosetta Stone, and the Damietta to the East.<\/p>\nImportance to Egypt<\/p>\nWithout the water of the river, life would be impossible in northeast Africa, and the civilizations of Egypt could not have come into being. The Greek writers, first Hecataeus and later Herodotus, commented that Egypt is the gift of the Nile. The fertile soil of Egypt, which has produced such abundant crops over so long a span of time, is the alluvium laid down by the river over the course of centuries. Not only was the river the source of the soil itself, but with the annual inundation the Nile fertilized the land by bringing down new alluvium and by depositing organic materials. At the same time, the inundation thoroughly soaked the soil, so that it was possible to produce good crops with a minimum of effort expended on irrigation.<\/p>\nThe Nile also satisfied many personal needs of the people, providing drinking water and a washing place for both the people and their clothing. In ancient times, even members of the royal family came to the river to bathe (see Ex 2:5; 8:20).<\/p>\nThe Nile teemed with fish and waterfowl, and sport fishing (mostly spearfishing) and waterfowling were traditional diversions of the upper classes. Fish and fowl were also regular food, especially for the wealthy. A more hazardous sport, in which nobles traditionally engaged, was the hunting of hippopotami in reed watercraft with harpoons.<\/p>\n\nThe Nile was the primary means of communication, with boats plying up and down its channels. Riverboats of large size moved goods from one end to the other. The building of temples, palaces, and tombs throughout the land demanded the moving of granite for hundreds of miles along the river.<\/p>\nThe river was also a feature of the religious life of the Egyptians. The river was deified in the form of the god Hapi, a man who is shown in the various forms of art as having pendulous breasts and a somewhat corpulent body, probably to represent luxuriant overabundance, along with the fish and vegetation from the river.<\/p>\nThe Nile and the Bible<\/p>\nThe biblical references to the Nile River are naturally found in those parts of the Bible that have to do directly with Egypt, which means that many occur in the Joseph narrative in the latter part of Genesis and in the account of the Israelite bondage in Egypt and subsequent exodus in the early chapters of Exodus.<\/p>\nThe first reference to the Nile appears in the mysterious dream of Pharaoh (Gn 41). In his dream the king stood on the riverbank and saw seven well-fed cows, followed by seven lean cows, which came out of the river and devoured the fat cattle (cf. 41:1-4, 17-21). This agrees with grazing practices of ancient Egypt and coincides with the depiction of cattle on the funerary monuments.<\/p>\nDuring the sojourn in Egypt, when the Israelites multiplied and became a possible threat to Egyptian security, Pharaoh decreed that every Israelite male child should be thrown into the river upon birth (Ex 1:22). This led to the events that marked the early life of Moses.<\/p>\nMoses declared the judgments of the Lord at the river (7:15; 8:20). The first plague, the turning of water to blood (7:15-24; 17:5; Ps 78:44), was directed against the river and against the Nile god, Hapi. The second plague (frogs) was also associated with the river (8:3, 5, 9, 11), for the swarms of frogs came up out of the river and enveloped the land (cf. Ps 78:45), discrediting the frog-headed goddess Heket.<\/p>\nThere are numerous references to the Nile in the books of prophecy. Isaiah often mentions the Nile, but not always in the same context. In 7:18 Isaiah writes that Israel would be invaded and humiliated by armies from the Nile. In the “oracle concerning Egypt” (Is 19), the prophet foresees both evil and good for the land of the Nile. The natural vegetation and sown crops along the river will be destroyed, while the fishermen will lament. These dire prospects are offset by the prediction of final blessing for Egypt.<\/p>\nIn the burden of Tyre (Is 23) the revenue of the Sidonian merchants was “the harvest of the Nile” (v 3), indicating the importance of agricultural produce in the Nile valley. In verse 10, Tyre casts off all restraint and is told to overflow the land like the Nile, for the Lord is bringing the pride of Tyre to an end. Jeremiah also predicted a severe defeat for Egypt and speaks of Egypt rising like the Nile, like rivers whose waters surge (Jer 46:7-8).<\/p>\nThe prophecy of Ezekiel concerning Egypt (Ez 29) singles out Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and describes him in figures of speech drawn from the Nile. He is described as the great dragon that lies in the midst of his streams—a reference to the mighty crocodile. Pharaoh boasts, “My Nile is my own,” but the Lord said that he would put hooks into the king’s jaws and draw him out of the water of his streams with all of the fish sticking to his scales. The king and the fish of the streams will perish in the wilderness. Because of the proud boasts of the king, the Lord declares that he is against him and his streams and that Egypt will become a desolation and a waste.<\/p>\nAmos described the northern kingdom of Israel as being tossed about, and sinking again, like the Nile of Egypt (Am 8:8; 9:5). Finally, Zechariah spoke of an ingathering of Israel by the Lord and comments that in this process the Nile would be dried up (Zec 10:11).<\/p>\nAlthough the prophetic references to the Nile primarily deal with severe judgments, the prophets looked forward to a time beyond judgment to eventual blessing for this land of the Nile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NILE RIVER<\/h3>\nLife-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers).<\/p>\nThe origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the Nile was simply “the river.” The Egyptians found it hard to conceive of any river different from the Nile, so when they reached the Euphrates, they assumed it was running backward, since it flowed south, whereas the Nile flows north.<\/p>\nUnusual Features<\/p>\nAmong the characteristics that distinguish the Nile are its six cataracts, areas where the river has failed to erode a clear channel through hard rock formations. These are numbered from north to south, in order of their discovery by modern explorers. The first cataract is at Aswan in Egypt, near the famous islands of Elephantine and Philae. The other five cataracts lie in the Sudan, with the second just above the city of Wadi Halfa.<\/p>\nAnother distinguishing feature of the Nile is that it flows from south to north. This was of importance to Egyptian river transport, for sailing vessels could take advantage of the prevailing north wind for going upstream, while the current propelled travelers downstream.<\/p>\nThe Nile River determined the three seasons of about four months each: (1) inundation (mid-July to mid-November); (2) winter (mid-November to mid-March); (3) summer (mid-March to mid-July).<\/p>\nThe inundation culminated in late October, softening the soil of the agricultural land for planting.<\/p>\nCourse and Tributaries<\/p>\nThe Nile has two main streams named for their respective colors, the White Nile and the Blue Nile. These streams owe their existence to the annual rains in equatorial Africa.<\/p>\nThe White Nile has its origin in the lake country. Lake Victoria is usually said to be its source, but some geographers pinpoint the source as a little stream that flows into the lake. The only outlet at Lake Victoria is the Victoria Nile, northeast of the lake at Ripon Falls.<\/p>\nThe most important junction of the river is at Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile are united. At this point one can often clearly see the color difference in the waters of the two rivers.<\/p>\nThe Blue Nile, only about 850 miles (1,367.7 kilometers) long, originates at Lake Tana in the highlands of Ethiopia. A much more precipitous stream than the White Nile, it is also dependent upon the rainy season in the high country. The White Nile begins its flooding first, but when the onrush of the Blue Nile sets in, it holds in check the water of the White Nile. During flood season, the Blue Nile has twice the volume of the White Nile and provides the greater part of the alluvium that built up the soil of Egypt.<\/p>\nTo the north of Khartoum is the sixth cataract, the first of the natural barriers. The Atbara, the last tributary of the Nile, enters from the east. At the fourth cataract, near Napata, is a group of cemeteries and ruins associated with the Ethiopian or Kushite (25th) dynasty of Egypt. Farther downstream is the important archaeological site of Kerma, where the Egyptians maintained a trading post during the Middle Kingdom.<\/p>\nDownstream from the second cataract is the celebrated temple of Abu Simbel, the work of Ramses II, with the smaller temple honoring Nefertari, his wife. These temples were moved to the cliff above their original position before Lake Nasser engulfed the site.<\/p>\nJust above Aswan and the first cataract is the new High Dam and the older Aswan Dam. Between the two dams is the island of Philae, with its well-known temples. A short distance above the Delta lies Cairo and the Giza pyramids, and farther south are the ruins of Memphis, the first capital of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe Delta measures some 125 by 115 miles (201.1 by 185.0 kilometers). Seven ancient streams of the Nile found their way into the sea, but there are only two modern ones: the Rosetta on the west, which gave the name to the Rosetta Stone, and the Damietta to the East.<\/p>\nImportance to Egypt<\/p>\nWithout the water of the river, life would be impossible in northeast Africa, and the civilizations of Egypt could not have come into being. The Greek writers, first Hecataeus and later Herodotus, commented that Egypt is the gift of the Nile. The fertile soil of Egypt, which has produced such abundant crops over so long a span of time, is the alluvium laid down by the river over the course of centuries. Not only was the river the source of the soil itself, but with the annual inundation the Nile fertilized the land by bringing down new alluvium and by depositing organic materials. At the same time, the inundation thoroughly soaked the soil, so that it was possible to produce good crops with a minimum of effort expended on irrigation.<\/p>\nThe Nile also satisfied many personal needs of the people, providing drinking water and a washing place for both the people and their clothing. In ancient times, even members of the royal family came to the river to bathe (see Ex 2:5; 8:20).<\/p>\nThe Nile teemed with fish and waterfowl, and sport fishing (mostly spearfishing) and waterfowling were traditional diversions of the upper classes. Fish and fowl were also regular food, especially for the wealthy. A more hazardous sport, in which nobles traditionally engaged, was the hunting of hippopotami in reed watercraft with harpoons.<\/p>\n\nThe Nile was the primary means of communication, with boats plying up and down its channels. Riverboats of large size moved goods from one end to the other. The building of temples, palaces, and tombs throughout the land demanded the moving of granite for hundreds of miles along the river.<\/p>\nThe river was also a feature of the religious life of the Egyptians. The river was deified in the form of the god Hapi, a man who is shown in the various forms of art as having pendulous breasts and a somewhat corpulent body, probably to represent luxuriant overabundance, along with the fish and vegetation from the river.<\/p>\nThe Nile and the Bible<\/p>\nThe biblical references to the Nile River are naturally found in those parts of the Bible that have to do directly with Egypt, which means that many occur in the Joseph narrative in the latter part of Genesis and in the account of the Israelite bondage in Egypt and subsequent exodus in the early chapters of Exodus.<\/p>\nThe first reference to the Nile appears in the mysterious dream of Pharaoh (Gn 41). In his dream the king stood on the riverbank and saw seven well-fed cows, followed by seven lean cows, which came out of the river and devoured the fat cattle (cf. 41:1-4, 17-21). This agrees with grazing practices of ancient Egypt and coincides with the depiction of cattle on the funerary monuments.<\/p>\nDuring the sojourn in Egypt, when the Israelites multiplied and became a possible threat to Egyptian security, Pharaoh decreed that every Israelite male child should be thrown into the river upon birth (Ex 1:22). This led to the events that marked the early life of Moses.<\/p>\nMoses declared the judgments of the Lord at the river (7:15; 8:20). The first plague, the turning of water to blood (7:15-24; 17:5; Ps 78:44), was directed against the river and against the Nile god, Hapi. The second plague (frogs) was also associated with the river (8:3, 5, 9, 11), for the swarms of frogs came up out of the river and enveloped the land (cf. Ps 78:45), discrediting the frog-headed goddess Heket.<\/p>\nThere are numerous references to the Nile in the books of prophecy. Isaiah often mentions the Nile, but not always in the same context. In 7:18 Isaiah writes that Israel would be invaded and humiliated by armies from the Nile. In the “oracle concerning Egypt” (Is 19), the prophet foresees both evil and good for the land of the Nile. The natural vegetation and sown crops along the river will be destroyed, while the fishermen will lament. These dire prospects are offset by the prediction of final blessing for Egypt.<\/p>\nIn the burden of Tyre (Is 23) the revenue of the Sidonian merchants was “the harvest of the Nile” (v 3), indicating the importance of agricultural produce in the Nile valley. In verse 10, Tyre casts off all restraint and is told to overflow the land like the Nile, for the Lord is bringing the pride of Tyre to an end. Jeremiah also predicted a severe defeat for Egypt and speaks of Egypt rising like the Nile, like rivers whose waters surge (Jer 46:7-8).<\/p>\nThe prophecy of Ezekiel concerning Egypt (Ez 29) singles out Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and describes him in figures of speech drawn from the Nile. He is described as the great dragon that lies in the midst of his streams—a reference to the mighty crocodile. Pharaoh boasts, “My Nile is my own,” but the Lord said that he would put hooks into the king’s jaws and draw him out of the water of his streams with all of the fish sticking to his scales. The king and the fish of the streams will perish in the wilderness. Because of the proud boasts of the king, the Lord declares that he is against him and his streams and that Egypt will become a desolation and a waste.<\/p>\nAmos described the northern kingdom of Israel as being tossed about, and sinking again, like the Nile of Egypt (Am 8:8; 9:5). Finally, Zechariah spoke of an ingathering of Israel by the Lord and comments that in this process the Nile would be dried up (Zec 10:11).<\/p>\nAlthough the prophetic references to the Nile primarily deal with severe judgments, the prophets looked forward to a time beyond judgment to eventual blessing for this land of the Nile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NILE RIVER Life-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers). The origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the ...","summary_en":"NILE RIVER Life-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers). The origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":25965,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Miracle","title_en":"Miracle","content_ro":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\nA divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\nThe Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\nIn the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\nThe NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\nMiracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\nTo the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\nMiracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\nThe miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the Lord<\/span>” (nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\nThe wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\nMiracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\nIt was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\nMiracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\nMiracles in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\nJesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\nYet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\nMark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\nThe miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\nMatthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\nLuke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\nFrom this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\nTherefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\nJohn is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\nJohn selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\nThe paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIRACLE<\/h3>\nA divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scripture the element of faith is crucial; a natural approach cannot prove or disprove the presence of “miracle.” The timing and content of the process can be miraculous, even though the event may seem natural. The revelatory significance is also important. In every case God performed the miracle not merely as a “wonder” to inspire awe but as a “sign” to draw people to himself.<\/p>\nThe Vocabulary of Miracles<\/p>\nIn the OT the two main terms are “sign” and “wonder,” which often occur together (e.g., nine times in Dt alone, 4:34; 13:1; etc.). More than one Hebrew term is used for “wonder”—one referring to it as an act of supernatural power and another as being beyond man’s understanding. On the whole, they are used synonymously for God’s providential acts within history. The “sign” refers to an act that occurs as a token or pledge of God’s control over events and as a revelation of God’s presence with his people.<\/p>\nThe NT uses the same basic idiom, “signs and wonders,” with the same general thrust (cf. Mt 24:24; Mk 13:22; Jn 4:48; Acts 2:43). A third term is that for “power” or miracle, and this becomes the predominant term in the synoptic Gospels. It signifies the mighty act itself by which God is revealed in Christ. A fourth term is “work,” which along with “sign” is preferred in the Gospel of John. This term is used in John to show that in Jesus the work of the Father is revealed. While the terms are often synonymous (the first three occur together in Rom 15:19-20; 2 Thes 2:9; Heb 2:4), they designate three different aspects of miracles. “Signs” point to the theological meaning of miracle as a revelation of God; “power,” to the force behind the act; “work,” to the person behind it; and “wonder,” to its awesome effect on the observer.<\/p>\nMiracles in the Old Testament<\/p>\nTo the Hebrew, a miracle was nothing more nor less than an act of God. Therefore, nature herself was a miracle (Jb 5:9-10; Pss 89:6; 106:2), and an act of kindness or victory over one’s enemies is so described (Gn 24:12-27; 1 Sm 14:23). The natural order is totally under Yahweh’s control, so a miracle was observable not because of its supernatural nature but because of its character as part of the divine revelation. This connection with salvation history is crucial, for Israel at all times tried to guard against a desire for the spectacular. Deuteronomy 13:1-4 warns against accepting a wonder as authenticating a prophet; rather, the authentication must come from the fact that he worships Yahweh.<\/p>\nMiracles in the OT are restricted to critical periods of redemptive history. Many have discussed the act of Creation as the first miracle, but in actuality it is not presented as such in the Genesis account. A miracle is signified by its revelatory significance and\/or its connection with crucial points in the history of God’s people—the exodus, the conquest of Jordan, the battle against the insidious Baal worship of the prophetic period. Creation is characterized by one major theme: a chronicle of the beginnings. The miracles of Genesis—striking blind the inhabitants of Sodom, the Flood, Babel—all signify the wrath of God upon those who have turned against him. This is the other side of redemptive history, the judgment of God upon those who are not his people.<\/p>\nThe miracles of the exodus account have two foci: The plagues represent the absolute power of Yahweh over the gods of Egypt, and the miracles of the wilderness show God’s absolute care and protection of his people. The plagues are particularly interesting because each one is directed at one of the gods of Egypt and reveals Yahweh as the only potentate. The basic theme is found in Exodus 7:5 and is repeated throughout the account (cf. 7:17; 8:6, 18; 9:14-16, 29; 12:12): “When I show the Egyptians my power and force them to let the Israelites go, they will realize that I am the Lord<\/span>” (nlt<\/span>). In this regard they were directed not only at the Egyptians but also to the Israelites, who needed to know that their God would vindicate them against the Egyptians. This is borne out in the major miracle, the crossing of the Red Sea. The plagues themselves show a gradual increase in severity.<\/p>\nThe wilderness miracles are intimately connected to the basic theme of the wandering narratives, the trial of Israel in times of desperate need and God’s providential protection of his people when they turn to him. The basic organization of the stories concerns the need itself, which leads to Israel’s complaint; this is followed by Moses’ intercession and then by God’s sovereign intervention. The miracles are interspersed with other stories that tell of God’s punishment when the people’s murmuring tries him too far. The miracle is God’s self-revelation regarding his involvement in the needs of his own; Israel must then respond, and her response determines her blessing or punishment at the hands of Yahweh.<\/p>\nMiracles are conspicuously absent in the period of the united monarchy. This was a time of self-sufficiency, when God worked through the monarchy and did not intervene directly in the life of the nation. The reason is that Israel’s eschatological hopes had been realized and made concrete in the presence of the Holy City and the temple.<\/p>\nIt was different during the prophetic period. In the lives of Elijah and Elisha, miracles were predominant. This was a time of apostasy, and under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel the nation turned to paganism and the worship of Baal. The very existence of the Hebraic religion seemed to be threatened, and so the times called for extraordinary measures. Here the wondrous nature of the miracles is more evident than anywhere else in the OT. There are conscious allusions to the exodus miracles, perhaps looking to Elijah as a new Moses reinstituting the true worship of Yahweh. Parallels are seen in the challenge to the priests of Baal (1 Kgs 18; cf. Ex 7); the revelation of God on Mt Horeb with the wind, earthquake, and fire (1 Kgs 19; cf. Ex 19); and the parting of the Jordan (2 Kgs 2:10-14; cf. Ex 14). Many of the miracles were intended to demonstrate the impotence of Baal, such as the drought, the contest on Mt Carmel, and the miraculous sustenance supplied by God. Again, God’s actions within history were part of his self-revelation, the vindication of his messengers, and the punishment of his enemies.<\/p>\nMiracles are infrequent in the writing prophets, perhaps due to the proclamation form of the writings (i.e., they dealt with message rather than deeds). The two major exceptions (apart from the recovery of Hezekiah chronicled in Is 38) are Jonah and Daniel. In Jonah, the miracle is addressed not to the Ninevites but to the Israelites, who are called back to their covenant obligations as the spokesmen for Yahweh. In Daniel the direction is reversed, and the situation is the same as that in Exodus or Kings. The miracles are directed to the Babylonians and Persians and have the same foci as the earlier events of the exodus and Elijah-Elisha chronicles, that is, the supremacy of Yahweh over the foreign gods and the vindication of his messengers. This is the third and final time of crisis and illustrates the major theological use of miracles in the OT.<\/p>\nMiracles in the New Testament<\/p>\nThe presence of the miraculous has a similar purpose in the NT; it occurred at a crisis point in salvation history to authenticate the presence of God in historical acts. It differs, however, in that it is transcended by the presence of the very Son of God, who himself is the greatest miracle of all. God now has not only acted in history; he has entered history and has turned it to himself. The parallels with the exodus events are obvious and show that the miracles of Jesus paved the way for the entrance of the new covenant in the same way that the exodus miracles prepared for the old.<\/p>\n\n<h5>Jesus’ Understanding<\/h5>\nJesus stressed the connection between his miraculous ministry, especially the casting out of demons (exorcism), and the coming of the kingdom of God. As in the OT, the miracles signify the presence of God, but here it is more direct and also signals the inauguration of his kingdom (Mt 12:28). As such, then, the exorcism miracles mean the binding of Satan and the institution of the reign of God (Mk 3:23-27). At the same time all the miracles signify the dawning of the age of salvation, as expressed in Jesus’ inaugural address at Nazareth (Lk 4:18-21, from Is 61:1-2).<\/p>\nYet these miracles are not automatic signposts to the act of God; they must be interpreted by faith. Jesus was well aware of the presence of other miracles in his day (Mt 12:27) and so stressed the presence of faith in the healing miracles (Mk 5:32; 10:52). This faith must be directed to the presence of God in the event and in Jesus himself. The necessity of faith also helps to understand Jesus’ refusal to provide his contemporaries with a “sign” (Mk 8:11-12); miracles could never “prove” the presence of God. For a better understanding of the connection between faith and miracles, it is best to note each Evangelist’s individual portrait of the theological use of miracles.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Mark<\/h5>\nMark, the first of the four Gospels to be written, has often been called the “action Gospel” because of its emphasis on Jesus’ deeds rather than his teaching. This is also true regarding Jesus’ miracles, for Mark contains more proportionately than any of the others. There are five groups or five kinds of miracles in Mark. The first group centers on Jesus’ authority over demons (Mk 1:21-39). The second concerns Jesus’ authority over the law and conflict with his opponents (1:40–3:6). They result in fame but occasion his refusal to allow his true identity as Son of God to be known. The third group (3:7-30) contains exorcisms and the Beelzebub controversy, centering on his power over Satan. The fourth group (4:35–6:43) contains especially powerful miracles (stilling the storm, the Gaderene demoniac, the raising of Jairus’s daughter) and probably centers on the disciples, as Jesus thereby reveals to them the meaning of the kingdom and seeks to overcome their own spiritual dullness. The fifth and final group (6:30–8:26) continues the theme of the disciples’ misunderstanding and prepares the way for the Passion, with the message regarding the bread, blindness, and the judgment of God.<\/p>\nThe miracles in Mark center on conflict, first with Jesus’ opponents and then with his own disciples. While the miracles are harbingers of God’s kingdom, their purpose is to force an encounter with Jesus’ true significance. They do not show Jesus as a Hellenistic wonder worker; in fact, they lead only to amazement and then disbelief in those who do not have faith. Jesus’ personhood has been hidden and can only be understood in light of the cross. The miracles are not proofs but powers; God does not authenticate himself through them but shows himself to those with eyes to see.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Matthew<\/h5>\nMatthew’s is the teaching Gospel, where dialogue takes precedence over action. Matthew compresses Mark’s narrative in order to make room for didactic material. Therefore, his stress is on the theological implications of faith rather than on the results they contain. Matthew’s groups of miracles are isometric to teaching passages, in keeping with his general practice of combining narrative portions and organizing them around didactic sections. The first group (chs 8–9) combines miracles from Mark’s first, second, and fourth groups and stresses Jesus’ significance as the servant of Yahweh who exercises sovereign power and forgives sins. The secondary theme teaches discipleship and shows the awakening faith of the disciples and their involvement in Jesus’ ministry. The second group (ch 12) centers on his authority over the law (the man with the withered hand) and over Satan (the Beelzebub controversy). The third group (chs 14–15) parallels Mark’s fifth group but has a different purpose. Rather than arousing conflict, the disciples are seen in positive guise, actively involved in the Master’s work. So the disciples become the means by which Jesus’ ministry is continued. Therefore, the disciples are involved as “learners” (the meaning of “disciple”) in his miraculous ministry.<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in Luke<\/h5>\nLuke-Acts is remarkable and extremely important because it establishes beyond dispute the early church’s belief that it was in absolute continuity with Jesus and was continuing the work of God in the world. Luke’s major stress is on salvation history, and so one of his major stylistic methods for showing this direct connection is miraculous deeds. Especially enlightening here is Acts 9:32-42, where in two healing miracles Peter duplicated the Lord’s miracles (the paralytic Aeneas, Lk 5:18-26; the raising of Dorcas, Lk 8:49-56).<\/p>\nFrom this respect also Luke returns to Mark’s interest in the deed more than the teaching. However, Luke goes even further than Mark, for the miracles validate Jesus more directly. The first group follows the inaugural address (4:18-22), which itself presents the miraculous deeds as authenticating signposts to Jesus’ personhood. They center on Jesus’ power and authority (vv 31-41) and validate God’s power in Jesus (5:17; 8:39) as well as faith in Jesus (seen in the “praise” motif, 5:25; 7:16; etc., but especially in Acts 9:35; 13:12; 19:17). The presence of “fear” at the miracles is a human response to having witnessed God’s power (Lk 5:26; 7:16; 8:35-37; 24:5). The call to the disciples occurs in the presence of miracles (5:1-11, at the miraculous catch of fish; vv 27-28, after the healing of the bedridden paralytic).<\/p>\nTherefore, Luke views miracles as having redemptive significance. However, this is not contrary to Mark’s picture. Luke still avoids picturing Jesus as a mere wonder worker; Jesus still refuses to satisfy people’s curiosity for an external sign (Lk 11:29-32; cf. also 9:9), and in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31) he teaches that the unbelieving heart can never be convinced by such events. Nevertheless, they can lead to repentance (10:13-16).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in John<\/h5>\nJohn is the most directly theological of the Evangelists, and miracles are characteristically given a distinctive Johannine coloring. In the Synoptics, miracles are “acts of power” signifying the entrance of God’s reign into this world via Jesus; thereby, Jesus establishes Satan’s defeat and God’s sovereign control of history. John, however, contains no exorcisms, and the miracles are seen as “signs.” At the same time miracles are part of the larger category of “works” (the other term for miracles used in John), by which Jesus shows the Father’s presence in himself (Jn 10:32, 37-39; 14:10) and they give witness to Jesus as the sent one (5:36; 10:25, 38).<\/p>\nJohn selects only seven “sign miracles” from many others (20:30) and uses them as part of the thematic development in the respective section of each. For instance, changing the water into wine is a messianic act, signifying the outpouring of the kingdom blessing in the ministry of Jesus, the Messiah (ch 2); the multiplication of the loaves builds upon the “bread of life” and points to the messianic banquet as spiritually present in Jesus (ch 6).<\/p>\nThe paradoxical nature of miracles in the Synoptics is even greater in John. He gives more stress to the wondrous nature of the events by providing such details as the stupendous amount of water changed into wine (2:6, approximately 120 gallons, or 454.2 liters); the distance over which Jesus’ healing power works (4:46, almost 20 miles, or 32.2 kilometers); the length of time the man of Bethesda had been lame (5:5, 38 years; cf. 9:1, where the man had been born blind); the amount of bread needed to feed the 5,000 (6:7, where Philip said 200 denarii, or days’ wages, would not have bought enough); and the proof of Lazarus’s death (11:39; he had already begun to decay). John has a great interest in the miraculous. Yet at the same time there is even greater stress on the inadequacy of miracles for faith. The miracles as “signs” have saving value and point to the true significance of Jesus but are related to an awakening faith and in themselves are insufficient (2:11; 4:50). They have christological force, looking to Jesus’ sonship and the Father’s authentication of him but are based on the soteriological decision of the individual. As “signs,” they contain the very presence of God in Jesus, the spiritual reality of the “sight” and “life” he brings (9:35-38; 11:24-26). Yet their purpose is to divide the audience and confront it with the necessity of decision. Two camps result—those seeking understanding and those considering only the outward aspects. Some refuse to consider the signs, and thus they reject them (3:18-21; 11:47-50), while others see them shallowly as mere wonders and fail to see in them the true significance of Jesus (2:23-25; 4:45). On the other hand, some view them with the eye of faith and go on to a realization of his personhood (2:11; 5:36-46; 11:42). In John the highest faith of all is that which does not need external stimulation (20:29).<\/p>\n<h5>Miracles in the Rest of the New Testament<\/h5>\nApart from Acts, several passages in the NT speak of the value of miracles. Paul in 2 Corinthians 12:12 and Romans 15:18-19 considered them as “sign-gifts,” which authenticated the divine authority of the “true apostle.” He listed healing and miracles as specific “gifts of the Spirit” in 1 Corinthians 12:9-10. In Galatians 3:5 he considered them evidence for the presence of the Spirit. The author of the letter to the Hebrews in 2:4 said “God bore witness” to the true message of salvation via miracles. Therefore, in the apostolic age the miracles of God’s servants were seen more directly as authenticating signs of God’s action in his messengers.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Sign; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","summary_en":"MIRACLE A divine act by which God reveals himself to people. The classical definition of miracle assumes that it is contrary to natural law, but this is a misnomer for two reasons. First, many of the miracles of the Bible used nature rather than bypassed it (e.g., the wind that parted the Red Sea, Ex 14:21). Second, there no longer is a concept of “absolute natural laws”; rather, a phenomenon that is not readily explainable may reflect laws that scientists do not yet fully understand. In Scri...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30489,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":30501,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43689,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:7","content_ro":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","content_en":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","summary_en":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71315,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:7","content_ro":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","content_en":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","summary_en":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98941,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:7","content_ro":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","content_en":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","summary_en":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126567,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:7","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:7","content_ro":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","content_en":"8:7-8<\/strong> The magicians<\/em> were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh<\/em> did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged<\/em> Moses to ask God to take<\/em> them away<\/em>. He already knew where the real power was.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","summary_en":"8:7-8 The magicians were able to duplicate the plague in some sense, but Pharaoh did not ask them to rid the land of the frogs. Instead, he begged Moses to ask God to take them away. He already knew where the real power was.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":30515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":43690,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:9","content_ro":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","content_en":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","summary_en":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71316,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:9","content_ro":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","content_en":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","summary_en":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98942,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:9","content_ro":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","content_en":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","summary_en":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126568,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:9","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:9","content_ro":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","content_en":"8:9<\/strong> In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","summary_en":"8:9 In this instance, the evidence of God’s power was not in the event per se but in the timing. God could keep the frogs alive or he could end their lives. Pharaoh needed only to say when.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":11438,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43691,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:10","content_ro":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","content_en":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","summary_en":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71317,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:10","content_ro":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","content_en":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","summary_en":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98943,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:10","content_ro":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","content_en":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","summary_en":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126569,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:10","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:10","content_ro":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","content_en":"8:10<\/strong> you will know that there is no one like the<\/em> Lord<\/span> our God:<\/em> Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","summary_en":"8:10 you will know that there is no one like the Lord our God: Once more the issue is highlighted (see 7:17). These events were not primarily about rescue, but about the nature of reality. Who was rescuing these people—one of the gods, or the one true God, the Lord?","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":43692,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:13","content_ro":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","summary_en":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71318,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:13","content_ro":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","summary_en":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98944,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:13","content_ro":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","summary_en":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126570,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:13","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:13","content_ro":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:13<\/strong> had predicted:<\/em> Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","summary_en":"8:13 had predicted: Moses predicted that the plague would stop the next day; God predicted that Pharaoh would refuse to listen (see 8:15). The element of prediction is central to God’s lordship. God sees and controls the future; he is the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":30490,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":15341,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Heart*, Hardness","title_en":"of Heart*, Hardness","content_ro":"<h3>HARDNESS OF HEART*<\/h3>\nA phrase signifying spiritual obstinacy.<\/p>\nThe first references to the hardening of the heart exemplify the fundamental features of this doctrine in Scripture. The number of times it is referred to is surprising; there are at least 20 references to the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in the OT alone, as well as Paul’s exposition of its significance in Romans 9:17-24.<\/p>\nThe first reference is Exodus 4:21, where God promises Moses that he will harden Pharaoh’s heart that he might not allow the Israelites to go. This promise is repeated (see Ex 7:3; 14:4, 17) and rapidly comes to pass (7:13-14), as revelation and miracle follow one another before the eyes of Pharaoh, followed by the actual occurrence of the events God warned about, including all the judgments of the 10 plagues.<\/p>\nNo doubt is left in the mind of the reader, either in the exodus account itself or later, that Pharaoh’s obstinacy was an act of divine judgment on God’s part for his own external ends and purposes (Ex 9:16; Jos 11:20; cf. Rom 9:17-18). Nevertheless, it is also stated that Pharaoh hardened his own heart (Ex 8:15, 32; 9:34; 13:15), showing that the hardening process is a deliberate product of personal rebellion against revealed truth. This is a crucial aspect of the scriptural presentation of the matter; judicial hardening of the heart is not only an act of God upon the sinner’s nature but also a willful turning from the truth. The sinner is therefore responsible to God for his hardness of heart.<\/p>\nThe process of judicial hardening is described by Paul in Romans 1:18-32. All humans have an innate God-consciousness from which they deliberately turn away. They change the truth into a lie and suppress what truth they have. As a result, hardness of heart takes over. Paul’s expression for this is that “their foolish heart was darkened” because “God gave them up” to the results of their own sin. The results are both intellectual (“God gave them over to a reprobate mind”) and moral, as well as social or cultural. Paul uses the term “hardness of heart” in Romans 2:5 to describe the general result. It is important to note that it is not against God’s wrath or against the results of sin that the wicked are in revolt but against “truth” and against their own conscience (2:14-16).<\/p>\nGod often warns his people not to harden their hearts, for Scripture associates hardening with unbelief (Dt 15:7; Heb 3:8, 15; 4:7). Jesus was grieved at the callousness of his hearers’ hearts (Mk 3:5; 16:14). He referred to allowances God had made to the Jews concerning divorce because of the hardness of their hearts (Mt 19:8).<\/p>\nOn at least two occasions in the Gospels, judicial blindness is ascribed directly to God, and its purpose stated (Mt 13:13-15; Jn 12:39-41). Hardness of heart is therefore an aspect of the development of the fallen character, manifesting the root of rebellion (Ps 95:8; Jn 12:40; Heb 3:8, 15; 4:7). Throughout Scripture, Jewish apostasy is so described (2 Kgs 17:14; Neh 9:16-17; Heb 3:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Blindness; Judgment; Regeneration.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARDNESS OF HEART*<\/h3>\nA phrase signifying spiritual obstinacy.<\/p>\nThe first references to the hardening of the heart exemplify the fundamental features of this doctrine in Scripture. The number of times it is referred to is surprising; there are at least 20 references to the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in the OT alone, as well as Paul’s exposition of its significance in Romans 9:17-24.<\/p>\nThe first reference is Exodus 4:21, where God promises Moses that he will harden Pharaoh’s heart that he might not allow the Israelites to go. This promise is repeated (see Ex 7:3; 14:4, 17) and rapidly comes to pass (7:13-14), as revelation and miracle follow one another before the eyes of Pharaoh, followed by the actual occurrence of the events God warned about, including all the judgments of the 10 plagues.<\/p>\nNo doubt is left in the mind of the reader, either in the exodus account itself or later, that Pharaoh’s obstinacy was an act of divine judgment on God’s part for his own external ends and purposes (Ex 9:16; Jos 11:20; cf. Rom 9:17-18). Nevertheless, it is also stated that Pharaoh hardened his own heart (Ex 8:15, 32; 9:34; 13:15), showing that the hardening process is a deliberate product of personal rebellion against revealed truth. This is a crucial aspect of the scriptural presentation of the matter; judicial hardening of the heart is not only an act of God upon the sinner’s nature but also a willful turning from the truth. The sinner is therefore responsible to God for his hardness of heart.<\/p>\nThe process of judicial hardening is described by Paul in Romans 1:18-32. All humans have an innate God-consciousness from which they deliberately turn away. They change the truth into a lie and suppress what truth they have. As a result, hardness of heart takes over. Paul’s expression for this is that “their foolish heart was darkened” because “God gave them up” to the results of their own sin. The results are both intellectual (“God gave them over to a reprobate mind”) and moral, as well as social or cultural. Paul uses the term “hardness of heart” in Romans 2:5 to describe the general result. It is important to note that it is not against God’s wrath or against the results of sin that the wicked are in revolt but against “truth” and against their own conscience (2:14-16).<\/p>\nGod often warns his people not to harden their hearts, for Scripture associates hardening with unbelief (Dt 15:7; Heb 3:8, 15; 4:7). Jesus was grieved at the callousness of his hearers’ hearts (Mk 3:5; 16:14). He referred to allowances God had made to the Jews concerning divorce because of the hardness of their hearts (Mt 19:8).<\/p>\nOn at least two occasions in the Gospels, judicial blindness is ascribed directly to God, and its purpose stated (Mt 13:13-15; Jn 12:39-41). Hardness of heart is therefore an aspect of the development of the fallen character, manifesting the root of rebellion (Ps 95:8; Jn 12:40; Heb 3:8, 15; 4:7). Throughout Scripture, Jewish apostasy is so described (2 Kgs 17:14; Neh 9:16-17; Heb 3:8).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Blindness; Judgment; Regeneration.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARDNESS OF HEART* A phrase signifying spiritual obstinacy. The first references to the hardening of the heart exemplify the fundamental features of this doctrine in Scripture. The number of times it is referred to is surprising; there are at least 20 references to the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in the OT alone, as well as Paul’s exposition of its significance in Romans 9:17-24. The first reference is Exodus 4:21, where God promises Moses that he will harden Pharaoh’s heart that he might no...","summary_en":"HARDNESS OF HEART* A phrase signifying spiritual obstinacy. The first references to the hardening of the heart exemplify the fundamental features of this doctrine in Scripture. The number of times it is referred to is surprising; there are at least 20 references to the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in the OT alone, as well as Paul’s exposition of its significance in Romans 9:17-24. The first reference is Exodus 4:21, where God promises Moses that he will harden Pharaoh’s heart that he might no...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30513,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60198,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87824,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115450,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143076,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":1919,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23176,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lice*","title_en":"Lice*","content_ro":"<h3>LICE*<\/h3>\nKJV translation for some sort of small insects, probably gnats; the third plague in Egypt (Ex 8:16-18). See<\/em> Animals (Gnat).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LICE*<\/h3>\nKJV translation for some sort of small insects, probably gnats; the third plague in Egypt (Ex 8:16-18). See<\/em> Animals (Gnat).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LICE* KJV translation for some sort of small insects, probably gnats; the third plague in Egypt (Ex 8:16-18). See Animals (Gnat).","summary_en":"LICE* KJV translation for some sort of small insects, probably gnats; the third plague in Egypt (Ex 8:16-18). See Animals (Gnat).","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43693,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:16","content_ro":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","content_en":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","summary_en":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71319,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:16","content_ro":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","content_en":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","summary_en":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98945,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:16","content_ro":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","content_en":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","summary_en":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126571,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:16","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:16","content_ro":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","content_en":"8:16-19<\/strong> The third plague was the plague of gnats<\/em>. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","summary_en":"8:16-19 The third plague was the plague of gnats. The word translated “gnats” is very general. Technical Old Testament dictionaries often translate it as “vermin.” The English term “bugs” would come close. The whole land was infested with insects of one sort or another.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60300,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87926,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115552,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143178,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":30491,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":30502,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":15,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Aaron","title_en":"Aaron","content_ro":"<h3>AARON<\/h3>\nMoses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Amram, a descendant of the Kohath family of Levi’s tribe (Ex 6:18-20).<\/p>\nAaron and his wife, Elisheba, had four sons (Ex 6:23), who were to follow him in the priesthood (Lv 1:5). Two of them, Nadab and Abihu, violated God’s instructions by performing a sacrilegious act while burning incense and were burned to death as a result (Lv 10:1-5). The priesthood was then passed on through the other two sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, who also sometimes failed to carry out God’s instructions precisely (10:6-20).<\/p>\nAaron’s prominence in the events of the exodus arose partly from the fact that he was Moses’ brother. When Moses tried to avoid becoming Israel’s leader on the grounds of having a speech impediment, Aaron’s ability as a speaker was recognized and used by God (Ex 4:10-16).<\/p>\nEvents of Aaron’s Life<\/p>\nThe Hebrew people were slaves in Egypt at the beginning of Aaron’s life. Raised as an Egyptian by one of the pharaoh’s daughters, Moses had fled into the Midian Desert after killing a cruel Egyptian taskmaster (Ex 1–2). When God sent Moses back as a liberator (chs 3–4), he also sent Aaron out to meet Moses in the desert (4:27). Moses was a stranger to his people after so many years of exile, so Aaron made contact with Israel’s elders for him (4:29-31). When Moses and Aaron went to see the pharaoh, God told the Egyptian monarch through the two of them to let the Israelites go (Ex 5:1). When the pharaoh made life even more miserable for the Hebrew slaves, God began to show his power to the Egyptian ruler through a series of miracles (chs 5–12). God performed the first three miracles through Aaron, using a rod (probably a shepherd’s staff). The pharaoh had his palace sorcerers do similar tricks. After God brought a plague of gnats (kjv<\/span> “lice”) over all Egypt, the Egyptian magicians admitted defeat and said, “This is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:19, nlt<\/span>). Then God brought on more plagues through Moses, culminating in the deaths of all the Egyptians’ firstborn sons. Aaron was with Moses (12:1-28) when God revealed how he would “pass over” the properly marked homes of the Israelites, sparing their children on the night the Egyptian children died. That event was the origin of the Passover feast still observed by Jews today (13:1-16).<\/p>\nAfter God led the Israelites to safety and destroyed the pursuing Egyptians, Aaron participated with Moses in governing the people on their long wilderness journey to the Promised Land (Ex 16:1-6). Later, battling against Amalek’s army, Aaron helped hold up Moses’ weary arms in prayer to maintain God’s blessing (17:8-16). Although always subordinate to Moses, Aaron seems to have been recognized as an important leader (18:12). God summoned him to be with Moses when God gave the law on Mt Sinai (19:24). Aaron was among the representatives of the people who ratified God’s statutes in the Book of the Covenant (24:1-8). Aaron went with those leaders partway up the holy mountain and saw the vision of the God of Israel (24:9-10). With Hur, he was left in charge when Moses was with God on the mountaintop (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n\nMoses was gone for over a month, and in a moment of weakness, Aaron gave in to the people’s request for an idol to worship. He melted down their gold ornaments to make a golden image of a calf (Ex 32:1-4). (The Israelites had probably been influenced in Egypt by the cult of Apis, a fertility god in the form of a bull.) At first, Aaron seemed to think he might be doing something acceptable to God (v 5), but things got out of hand and a drunken sex orgy took place around the idol (v 6). God was angry enough to destroy the people, but Moses interceded, reminding God of his promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants (Ex 32:7-14). Moses furiously confronted Aaron about the immorality and idolatry, which Aaron blamed on the people without admitting any guilt of his own (vv 21-24). Although the idolators were punished by death (Ex 32:25-28) and the whole camp by a plague (v 35), Aaron was evidently not punished. In a retelling of the events, Moses said that Aaron was in great danger but was spared because he had prayed for him (Dt 9:20).<\/p>\nIn their second year of nomadic wilderness life, Aaron helped Moses carry out a census (Nm 1:1-3, 17-18). Eventually, Aaron may have become jealous of Moses’ position of leadership, for Miriam and Aaron began to slander their brother, even though the elderly Moses was by then more humble than any man on earth (Nm 12:1-4). God’s anger toward the two was averted by Moses’ prayer, although Miriam did suffer for her sin (12:5-15). Aaron again seems to have escaped punishment entirely. With Moses, Aaron opposed a rebellion at Kadesh (14:1-5). He stood with Moses against a later revolt (ch 16). After a final incident at Meribah, where the Israelites almost revolted again, God accused Moses and Aaron of having failed to take him at his word and denied them entry into the Promised Land (20:1-12). Aaron died at the age of 123 on Mt Hor, after Moses had removed his elaborate priestly garments and put them on Aaron’s son Eleazar (Nm 20:23-29; 33:38-39).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Exodus, The; Wilderness Wanderings; Priests and Levites; Levi, Tribe of; Aaron’s Rod.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AARON<\/h3>\nMoses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Amram, a descendant of the Kohath family of Levi’s tribe (Ex 6:18-20).<\/p>\nAaron and his wife, Elisheba, had four sons (Ex 6:23), who were to follow him in the priesthood (Lv 1:5). Two of them, Nadab and Abihu, violated God’s instructions by performing a sacrilegious act while burning incense and were burned to death as a result (Lv 10:1-5). The priesthood was then passed on through the other two sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, who also sometimes failed to carry out God’s instructions precisely (10:6-20).<\/p>\nAaron’s prominence in the events of the exodus arose partly from the fact that he was Moses’ brother. When Moses tried to avoid becoming Israel’s leader on the grounds of having a speech impediment, Aaron’s ability as a speaker was recognized and used by God (Ex 4:10-16).<\/p>\nEvents of Aaron’s Life<\/p>\nThe Hebrew people were slaves in Egypt at the beginning of Aaron’s life. Raised as an Egyptian by one of the pharaoh’s daughters, Moses had fled into the Midian Desert after killing a cruel Egyptian taskmaster (Ex 1–2). When God sent Moses back as a liberator (chs 3–4), he also sent Aaron out to meet Moses in the desert (4:27). Moses was a stranger to his people after so many years of exile, so Aaron made contact with Israel’s elders for him (4:29-31). When Moses and Aaron went to see the pharaoh, God told the Egyptian monarch through the two of them to let the Israelites go (Ex 5:1). When the pharaoh made life even more miserable for the Hebrew slaves, God began to show his power to the Egyptian ruler through a series of miracles (chs 5–12). God performed the first three miracles through Aaron, using a rod (probably a shepherd’s staff). The pharaoh had his palace sorcerers do similar tricks. After God brought a plague of gnats (kjv<\/span> “lice”) over all Egypt, the Egyptian magicians admitted defeat and said, “This is the finger of God!” (Ex 8:19, nlt<\/span>). Then God brought on more plagues through Moses, culminating in the deaths of all the Egyptians’ firstborn sons. Aaron was with Moses (12:1-28) when God revealed how he would “pass over” the properly marked homes of the Israelites, sparing their children on the night the Egyptian children died. That event was the origin of the Passover feast still observed by Jews today (13:1-16).<\/p>\nAfter God led the Israelites to safety and destroyed the pursuing Egyptians, Aaron participated with Moses in governing the people on their long wilderness journey to the Promised Land (Ex 16:1-6). Later, battling against Amalek’s army, Aaron helped hold up Moses’ weary arms in prayer to maintain God’s blessing (17:8-16). Although always subordinate to Moses, Aaron seems to have been recognized as an important leader (18:12). God summoned him to be with Moses when God gave the law on Mt Sinai (19:24). Aaron was among the representatives of the people who ratified God’s statutes in the Book of the Covenant (24:1-8). Aaron went with those leaders partway up the holy mountain and saw the vision of the God of Israel (24:9-10). With Hur, he was left in charge when Moses was with God on the mountaintop (vv 13-14).<\/p>\n\nMoses was gone for over a month, and in a moment of weakness, Aaron gave in to the people’s request for an idol to worship. He melted down their gold ornaments to make a golden image of a calf (Ex 32:1-4). (The Israelites had probably been influenced in Egypt by the cult of Apis, a fertility god in the form of a bull.) At first, Aaron seemed to think he might be doing something acceptable to God (v 5), but things got out of hand and a drunken sex orgy took place around the idol (v 6). God was angry enough to destroy the people, but Moses interceded, reminding God of his promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants (Ex 32:7-14). Moses furiously confronted Aaron about the immorality and idolatry, which Aaron blamed on the people without admitting any guilt of his own (vv 21-24). Although the idolators were punished by death (Ex 32:25-28) and the whole camp by a plague (v 35), Aaron was evidently not punished. In a retelling of the events, Moses said that Aaron was in great danger but was spared because he had prayed for him (Dt 9:20).<\/p>\nIn their second year of nomadic wilderness life, Aaron helped Moses carry out a census (Nm 1:1-3, 17-18). Eventually, Aaron may have become jealous of Moses’ position of leadership, for Miriam and Aaron began to slander their brother, even though the elderly Moses was by then more humble than any man on earth (Nm 12:1-4). God’s anger toward the two was averted by Moses’ prayer, although Miriam did suffer for her sin (12:5-15). Aaron again seems to have escaped punishment entirely. With Moses, Aaron opposed a rebellion at Kadesh (14:1-5). He stood with Moses against a later revolt (ch 16). After a final incident at Meribah, where the Israelites almost revolted again, God accused Moses and Aaron of having failed to take him at his word and denied them entry into the Promised Land (20:1-12). Aaron died at the age of 123 on Mt Hor, after Moses had removed his elaborate priestly garments and put them on Aaron’s son Eleazar (Nm 20:23-29; 33:38-39).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Israel, History of; Exodus, The; Wilderness Wanderings; Priests and Levites; Levi, Tribe of; Aaron’s Rod.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AARON Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Am...","summary_en":"AARON Moses’ brother and Israel’s first high priest. In the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, Aaron was Moses’ spokesman and assistant during the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt. Aaron was three years older than Moses and was 83 when they first confronted the pharaoh (Ex 7:7). Their sister, Miriam (Nm 26:59), must have been the eldest child, old enough to carry messages when the infant Moses was found by the pharaoh’s daughter (Ex 2:1-9). Aaron’s mother was Jochebed and his father was Am...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11444,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30503,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43694,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:19","content_ro":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","content_en":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","summary_en":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71320,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:19","content_ro":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","content_en":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","summary_en":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98946,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:19","content_ro":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","content_en":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","summary_en":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126572,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:19","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:19","content_ro":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","content_en":"8:19<\/strong> This is the finger of God!<\/em> See study note on 7:11.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","summary_en":"8:19 This is the finger of God! See study note on 7:11.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60200,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87826,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115452,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143078,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":27572,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nile River","title_en":"Nile River","content_ro":"<h3>NILE RIVER<\/h3>\nLife-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers).<\/p>\nThe origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the Nile was simply “the river.” The Egyptians found it hard to conceive of any river different from the Nile, so when they reached the Euphrates, they assumed it was running backward, since it flowed south, whereas the Nile flows north.<\/p>\nUnusual Features<\/p>\nAmong the characteristics that distinguish the Nile are its six cataracts, areas where the river has failed to erode a clear channel through hard rock formations. These are numbered from north to south, in order of their discovery by modern explorers. The first cataract is at Aswan in Egypt, near the famous islands of Elephantine and Philae. The other five cataracts lie in the Sudan, with the second just above the city of Wadi Halfa.<\/p>\nAnother distinguishing feature of the Nile is that it flows from south to north. This was of importance to Egyptian river transport, for sailing vessels could take advantage of the prevailing north wind for going upstream, while the current propelled travelers downstream.<\/p>\nThe Nile River determined the three seasons of about four months each: (1) inundation (mid-July to mid-November); (2) winter (mid-November to mid-March); (3) summer (mid-March to mid-July).<\/p>\nThe inundation culminated in late October, softening the soil of the agricultural land for planting.<\/p>\nCourse and Tributaries<\/p>\nThe Nile has two main streams named for their respective colors, the White Nile and the Blue Nile. These streams owe their existence to the annual rains in equatorial Africa.<\/p>\nThe White Nile has its origin in the lake country. Lake Victoria is usually said to be its source, but some geographers pinpoint the source as a little stream that flows into the lake. The only outlet at Lake Victoria is the Victoria Nile, northeast of the lake at Ripon Falls.<\/p>\nThe most important junction of the river is at Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile are united. At this point one can often clearly see the color difference in the waters of the two rivers.<\/p>\nThe Blue Nile, only about 850 miles (1,367.7 kilometers) long, originates at Lake Tana in the highlands of Ethiopia. A much more precipitous stream than the White Nile, it is also dependent upon the rainy season in the high country. The White Nile begins its flooding first, but when the onrush of the Blue Nile sets in, it holds in check the water of the White Nile. During flood season, the Blue Nile has twice the volume of the White Nile and provides the greater part of the alluvium that built up the soil of Egypt.<\/p>\nTo the north of Khartoum is the sixth cataract, the first of the natural barriers. The Atbara, the last tributary of the Nile, enters from the east. At the fourth cataract, near Napata, is a group of cemeteries and ruins associated with the Ethiopian or Kushite (25th) dynasty of Egypt. Farther downstream is the important archaeological site of Kerma, where the Egyptians maintained a trading post during the Middle Kingdom.<\/p>\nDownstream from the second cataract is the celebrated temple of Abu Simbel, the work of Ramses II, with the smaller temple honoring Nefertari, his wife. These temples were moved to the cliff above their original position before Lake Nasser engulfed the site.<\/p>\nJust above Aswan and the first cataract is the new High Dam and the older Aswan Dam. Between the two dams is the island of Philae, with its well-known temples. A short distance above the Delta lies Cairo and the Giza pyramids, and farther south are the ruins of Memphis, the first capital of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe Delta measures some 125 by 115 miles (201.1 by 185.0 kilometers). Seven ancient streams of the Nile found their way into the sea, but there are only two modern ones: the Rosetta on the west, which gave the name to the Rosetta Stone, and the Damietta to the East.<\/p>\nImportance to Egypt<\/p>\nWithout the water of the river, life would be impossible in northeast Africa, and the civilizations of Egypt could not have come into being. The Greek writers, first Hecataeus and later Herodotus, commented that Egypt is the gift of the Nile. The fertile soil of Egypt, which has produced such abundant crops over so long a span of time, is the alluvium laid down by the river over the course of centuries. Not only was the river the source of the soil itself, but with the annual inundation the Nile fertilized the land by bringing down new alluvium and by depositing organic materials. At the same time, the inundation thoroughly soaked the soil, so that it was possible to produce good crops with a minimum of effort expended on irrigation.<\/p>\nThe Nile also satisfied many personal needs of the people, providing drinking water and a washing place for both the people and their clothing. In ancient times, even members of the royal family came to the river to bathe (see Ex 2:5; 8:20).<\/p>\nThe Nile teemed with fish and waterfowl, and sport fishing (mostly spearfishing) and waterfowling were traditional diversions of the upper classes. Fish and fowl were also regular food, especially for the wealthy. A more hazardous sport, in which nobles traditionally engaged, was the hunting of hippopotami in reed watercraft with harpoons.<\/p>\n\nThe Nile was the primary means of communication, with boats plying up and down its channels. Riverboats of large size moved goods from one end to the other. The building of temples, palaces, and tombs throughout the land demanded the moving of granite for hundreds of miles along the river.<\/p>\nThe river was also a feature of the religious life of the Egyptians. The river was deified in the form of the god Hapi, a man who is shown in the various forms of art as having pendulous breasts and a somewhat corpulent body, probably to represent luxuriant overabundance, along with the fish and vegetation from the river.<\/p>\nThe Nile and the Bible<\/p>\nThe biblical references to the Nile River are naturally found in those parts of the Bible that have to do directly with Egypt, which means that many occur in the Joseph narrative in the latter part of Genesis and in the account of the Israelite bondage in Egypt and subsequent exodus in the early chapters of Exodus.<\/p>\nThe first reference to the Nile appears in the mysterious dream of Pharaoh (Gn 41). In his dream the king stood on the riverbank and saw seven well-fed cows, followed by seven lean cows, which came out of the river and devoured the fat cattle (cf. 41:1-4, 17-21). This agrees with grazing practices of ancient Egypt and coincides with the depiction of cattle on the funerary monuments.<\/p>\nDuring the sojourn in Egypt, when the Israelites multiplied and became a possible threat to Egyptian security, Pharaoh decreed that every Israelite male child should be thrown into the river upon birth (Ex 1:22). This led to the events that marked the early life of Moses.<\/p>\nMoses declared the judgments of the Lord at the river (7:15; 8:20). The first plague, the turning of water to blood (7:15-24; 17:5; Ps 78:44), was directed against the river and against the Nile god, Hapi. The second plague (frogs) was also associated with the river (8:3, 5, 9, 11), for the swarms of frogs came up out of the river and enveloped the land (cf. Ps 78:45), discrediting the frog-headed goddess Heket.<\/p>\nThere are numerous references to the Nile in the books of prophecy. Isaiah often mentions the Nile, but not always in the same context. In 7:18 Isaiah writes that Israel would be invaded and humiliated by armies from the Nile. In the “oracle concerning Egypt” (Is 19), the prophet foresees both evil and good for the land of the Nile. The natural vegetation and sown crops along the river will be destroyed, while the fishermen will lament. These dire prospects are offset by the prediction of final blessing for Egypt.<\/p>\nIn the burden of Tyre (Is 23) the revenue of the Sidonian merchants was “the harvest of the Nile” (v 3), indicating the importance of agricultural produce in the Nile valley. In verse 10, Tyre casts off all restraint and is told to overflow the land like the Nile, for the Lord is bringing the pride of Tyre to an end. Jeremiah also predicted a severe defeat for Egypt and speaks of Egypt rising like the Nile, like rivers whose waters surge (Jer 46:7-8).<\/p>\nThe prophecy of Ezekiel concerning Egypt (Ez 29) singles out Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and describes him in figures of speech drawn from the Nile. He is described as the great dragon that lies in the midst of his streams—a reference to the mighty crocodile. Pharaoh boasts, “My Nile is my own,” but the Lord said that he would put hooks into the king’s jaws and draw him out of the water of his streams with all of the fish sticking to his scales. The king and the fish of the streams will perish in the wilderness. Because of the proud boasts of the king, the Lord declares that he is against him and his streams and that Egypt will become a desolation and a waste.<\/p>\nAmos described the northern kingdom of Israel as being tossed about, and sinking again, like the Nile of Egypt (Am 8:8; 9:5). Finally, Zechariah spoke of an ingathering of Israel by the Lord and comments that in this process the Nile would be dried up (Zec 10:11).<\/p>\nAlthough the prophetic references to the Nile primarily deal with severe judgments, the prophets looked forward to a time beyond judgment to eventual blessing for this land of the Nile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NILE RIVER<\/h3>\nLife-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers).<\/p>\nThe origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the Nile was simply “the river.” The Egyptians found it hard to conceive of any river different from the Nile, so when they reached the Euphrates, they assumed it was running backward, since it flowed south, whereas the Nile flows north.<\/p>\nUnusual Features<\/p>\nAmong the characteristics that distinguish the Nile are its six cataracts, areas where the river has failed to erode a clear channel through hard rock formations. These are numbered from north to south, in order of their discovery by modern explorers. The first cataract is at Aswan in Egypt, near the famous islands of Elephantine and Philae. The other five cataracts lie in the Sudan, with the second just above the city of Wadi Halfa.<\/p>\nAnother distinguishing feature of the Nile is that it flows from south to north. This was of importance to Egyptian river transport, for sailing vessels could take advantage of the prevailing north wind for going upstream, while the current propelled travelers downstream.<\/p>\nThe Nile River determined the three seasons of about four months each: (1) inundation (mid-July to mid-November); (2) winter (mid-November to mid-March); (3) summer (mid-March to mid-July).<\/p>\nThe inundation culminated in late October, softening the soil of the agricultural land for planting.<\/p>\nCourse and Tributaries<\/p>\nThe Nile has two main streams named for their respective colors, the White Nile and the Blue Nile. These streams owe their existence to the annual rains in equatorial Africa.<\/p>\nThe White Nile has its origin in the lake country. Lake Victoria is usually said to be its source, but some geographers pinpoint the source as a little stream that flows into the lake. The only outlet at Lake Victoria is the Victoria Nile, northeast of the lake at Ripon Falls.<\/p>\nThe most important junction of the river is at Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile are united. At this point one can often clearly see the color difference in the waters of the two rivers.<\/p>\nThe Blue Nile, only about 850 miles (1,367.7 kilometers) long, originates at Lake Tana in the highlands of Ethiopia. A much more precipitous stream than the White Nile, it is also dependent upon the rainy season in the high country. The White Nile begins its flooding first, but when the onrush of the Blue Nile sets in, it holds in check the water of the White Nile. During flood season, the Blue Nile has twice the volume of the White Nile and provides the greater part of the alluvium that built up the soil of Egypt.<\/p>\nTo the north of Khartoum is the sixth cataract, the first of the natural barriers. The Atbara, the last tributary of the Nile, enters from the east. At the fourth cataract, near Napata, is a group of cemeteries and ruins associated with the Ethiopian or Kushite (25th) dynasty of Egypt. Farther downstream is the important archaeological site of Kerma, where the Egyptians maintained a trading post during the Middle Kingdom.<\/p>\nDownstream from the second cataract is the celebrated temple of Abu Simbel, the work of Ramses II, with the smaller temple honoring Nefertari, his wife. These temples were moved to the cliff above their original position before Lake Nasser engulfed the site.<\/p>\nJust above Aswan and the first cataract is the new High Dam and the older Aswan Dam. Between the two dams is the island of Philae, with its well-known temples. A short distance above the Delta lies Cairo and the Giza pyramids, and farther south are the ruins of Memphis, the first capital of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe Delta measures some 125 by 115 miles (201.1 by 185.0 kilometers). Seven ancient streams of the Nile found their way into the sea, but there are only two modern ones: the Rosetta on the west, which gave the name to the Rosetta Stone, and the Damietta to the East.<\/p>\nImportance to Egypt<\/p>\nWithout the water of the river, life would be impossible in northeast Africa, and the civilizations of Egypt could not have come into being. The Greek writers, first Hecataeus and later Herodotus, commented that Egypt is the gift of the Nile. The fertile soil of Egypt, which has produced such abundant crops over so long a span of time, is the alluvium laid down by the river over the course of centuries. Not only was the river the source of the soil itself, but with the annual inundation the Nile fertilized the land by bringing down new alluvium and by depositing organic materials. At the same time, the inundation thoroughly soaked the soil, so that it was possible to produce good crops with a minimum of effort expended on irrigation.<\/p>\nThe Nile also satisfied many personal needs of the people, providing drinking water and a washing place for both the people and their clothing. In ancient times, even members of the royal family came to the river to bathe (see Ex 2:5; 8:20).<\/p>\nThe Nile teemed with fish and waterfowl, and sport fishing (mostly spearfishing) and waterfowling were traditional diversions of the upper classes. Fish and fowl were also regular food, especially for the wealthy. A more hazardous sport, in which nobles traditionally engaged, was the hunting of hippopotami in reed watercraft with harpoons.<\/p>\n\nThe Nile was the primary means of communication, with boats plying up and down its channels. Riverboats of large size moved goods from one end to the other. The building of temples, palaces, and tombs throughout the land demanded the moving of granite for hundreds of miles along the river.<\/p>\nThe river was also a feature of the religious life of the Egyptians. The river was deified in the form of the god Hapi, a man who is shown in the various forms of art as having pendulous breasts and a somewhat corpulent body, probably to represent luxuriant overabundance, along with the fish and vegetation from the river.<\/p>\nThe Nile and the Bible<\/p>\nThe biblical references to the Nile River are naturally found in those parts of the Bible that have to do directly with Egypt, which means that many occur in the Joseph narrative in the latter part of Genesis and in the account of the Israelite bondage in Egypt and subsequent exodus in the early chapters of Exodus.<\/p>\nThe first reference to the Nile appears in the mysterious dream of Pharaoh (Gn 41). In his dream the king stood on the riverbank and saw seven well-fed cows, followed by seven lean cows, which came out of the river and devoured the fat cattle (cf. 41:1-4, 17-21). This agrees with grazing practices of ancient Egypt and coincides with the depiction of cattle on the funerary monuments.<\/p>\nDuring the sojourn in Egypt, when the Israelites multiplied and became a possible threat to Egyptian security, Pharaoh decreed that every Israelite male child should be thrown into the river upon birth (Ex 1:22). This led to the events that marked the early life of Moses.<\/p>\nMoses declared the judgments of the Lord at the river (7:15; 8:20). The first plague, the turning of water to blood (7:15-24; 17:5; Ps 78:44), was directed against the river and against the Nile god, Hapi. The second plague (frogs) was also associated with the river (8:3, 5, 9, 11), for the swarms of frogs came up out of the river and enveloped the land (cf. Ps 78:45), discrediting the frog-headed goddess Heket.<\/p>\nThere are numerous references to the Nile in the books of prophecy. Isaiah often mentions the Nile, but not always in the same context. In 7:18 Isaiah writes that Israel would be invaded and humiliated by armies from the Nile. In the “oracle concerning Egypt” (Is 19), the prophet foresees both evil and good for the land of the Nile. The natural vegetation and sown crops along the river will be destroyed, while the fishermen will lament. These dire prospects are offset by the prediction of final blessing for Egypt.<\/p>\nIn the burden of Tyre (Is 23) the revenue of the Sidonian merchants was “the harvest of the Nile” (v 3), indicating the importance of agricultural produce in the Nile valley. In verse 10, Tyre casts off all restraint and is told to overflow the land like the Nile, for the Lord is bringing the pride of Tyre to an end. Jeremiah also predicted a severe defeat for Egypt and speaks of Egypt rising like the Nile, like rivers whose waters surge (Jer 46:7-8).<\/p>\nThe prophecy of Ezekiel concerning Egypt (Ez 29) singles out Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and describes him in figures of speech drawn from the Nile. He is described as the great dragon that lies in the midst of his streams—a reference to the mighty crocodile. Pharaoh boasts, “My Nile is my own,” but the Lord said that he would put hooks into the king’s jaws and draw him out of the water of his streams with all of the fish sticking to his scales. The king and the fish of the streams will perish in the wilderness. Because of the proud boasts of the king, the Lord declares that he is against him and his streams and that Egypt will become a desolation and a waste.<\/p>\nAmos described the northern kingdom of Israel as being tossed about, and sinking again, like the Nile of Egypt (Am 8:8; 9:5). Finally, Zechariah spoke of an ingathering of Israel by the Lord and comments that in this process the Nile would be dried up (Zec 10:11).<\/p>\nAlthough the prophetic references to the Nile primarily deal with severe judgments, the prophets looked forward to a time beyond judgment to eventual blessing for this land of the Nile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NILE RIVER Life-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers). The origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the ...","summary_en":"NILE RIVER Life-giving river of Egypt in northeast Africa. Perhaps no other river has been so vital to the history of the nation through which it flows. With an attributed length of some 4,160 miles (6,693.4 kilometers), the Nile is the longest river in the world, although its drainage system is ranked third (other sources say sixth) in area (nearly 1.3 million square miles, or 3.4 million square kilometers). The origin and meaning of the name “Nile” are unknown. To the ancient Egyptians the ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43695,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:20","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:20","content_ro":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","content_en":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","summary_en":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71321,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:20","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:20","content_ro":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","content_en":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","summary_en":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98947,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:20","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:20","content_ro":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","content_en":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","summary_en":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126573,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:20","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:20","content_ro":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","content_en":"8:20-32<\/strong> The fourth plague was the plague of flies<\/em>. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies<\/em> in Goshen<\/em> (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s miraculous power was clearly seen in his ability to infest one area while sparing another at will.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","summary_en":"8:20-32 The fourth plague was the plague of flies. The Egyptians worshiped insects such as flies that seemed to be able to turn death into life, as their young seemed to emerge from decaying matter. If the Egyptians thought that insects had the secret of life, God would let them have all the insects they wanted. Some say that this infestation was the natural result of all the dead frogs, but there were no flies in Goshen (8:22), the northeastern delta area where the Hebrews lived. God’s mirac...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60301,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64202,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87927,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91828,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115553,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119454,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143179,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Plagues","title_en":"The Plagues","content_ro":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Plagues<\/h3>\nRescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations.<\/p>\nThe Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may have believed about God when they arrived in Egypt, they were certainly infected with the prevailing pagan views during their sojourn there (see Exod 32).<\/p>\nThe plagues revealed the Lord’s absolute superiority over everything in creation. These cataclysmic events were specifically aimed at elements the Egyptians revered and worshiped:<\/p>\n1. The Nile Turned to Blood<\/em> (7:14-25): The Nile, revered as a god who gave Egypt life and fertility, became a bloody representation of death.<\/p>\n2. Frogs<\/em> (8:1-15): The Egyptians revered frogs (represented by Heqet, frog-headed goddess of fruitfulness) as having the key of life beyond death. Now frogs filled the land with the stink of death.<\/p>\n3. Gnats<\/em> (8:16-19): The “finger of God” fell on the land with a plague of biting insects that came from the earth, revealing God’s power over Geb, the Egyptian god of the earth.<\/p>\n4. Flies<\/em> (8:20-32): The Lord made “a clear distinction” between Israel and Egypt when swarms of biting flies (revered as embodying life from death) filled the land and tormented the Egyptians, including Pharaoh.<\/p>\n5. Death of Livestock<\/em> (9:1-7): The Egyptians revered cattle as divine, having the power of life and fertility; Amon-Re, the chief god of Egypt, was pictured as a bull. The “hand of the Lord<\/span>” struck them, demonstrating his sovereign power.<\/p>\n6. Festering Boils<\/em> (9:8-12): God struck the Egyptians with this plague of burning sores, which the Egyptian goddess of healing, Sekhmet, was evidently powerless to ameliorate.<\/p>\n7. Hail<\/em> (9:13-35): The Egyptian god Osiris, who represented vegetation, was unable to prevent the Lord from destroying it, because “the earth belongs to the Lord<\/span>.”<\/p>\n8. Locusts<\/em> (10:1-20): The Lord directed the wind and sent locusts to destroy the last of the vegetation, and with it any hope in Osiris to restore Egypt’s crops.<\/p>\n9. Darkness<\/em> (10:21-29): The Lord demonstrated complete, sovereign control over Re, the sun god and king of the Egyptian gods, considered the father of mankind. No power in Egypt could stand against the Lord and his purposes.<\/p>\n10. Death of the Firstborn<\/em> (11:1–12:30): The Lord took away life itself—which the Egyptians revered above all else—from the heir of every family in Egypt, while preserving and rescuing Israel through the blood sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover.<\/p>\nThus Yahweh demonstrated to both the Egyptians and the Israelites that he alone is God.<\/p>\nThe plagues are often referred to as “signs,” just as Jesus’ miracles were (e.g., 7:3; 10:1-2; John 2:23; 4:48; 12:37). The plagues show that worshiping created things brings God’s judgment. Jesus’ miracles, on the other hand, show that all that is deadly in creation—illness, the demonic, nature run amok, and even death itself—can be overcome by God’s gift of life.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 12:15-20; 20:1-18; Exod 7:3-5; 7:14–11:1012:28-33; 32:35; Num 11:33; 12:1-15; 16:43-50; 1 Kgs 13:4; 2 Kgs 2:24; 2 Chr 26:16-21; Acts 5:1-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","summary_en":"The Plagues Rescuing the Hebrew people from oppression by the Egyptians was not the main purpose of the plagues. If that had been the case, one climactic miracle would have been sufficient. The real purpose of the plagues was to communicate who God is—to Israel, to Egypt, and to the surrounding nations. The Israelites had likely lost sight of who God was. They had lived for hundreds of years in Egypt, one of the most polytheistic cultures the world has ever known. Whatever the Israelites may ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147080,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Lord of Nations","title_en":"The Lord of Nations","content_ro":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Lord of Nations<\/h3>\nBoth the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control.<\/p>\nThe Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of each nation. Rulers were held accountable before God concerning the morality of their policies and how they were carried out. This claim is apparent in Jeremiah 18, 25, and 46–51.<\/p>\nNations that failed to recognize the reality of the one true God would suffer severe judgment. For selected nations, God softened the judgment by promising that a remnant would remain (see Jer 46–51).<\/p>\nThe Lord desires every nation on earth to be converted to sincere devotion and commitment to him. He has always wanted all people to live righteous lives and to experience the joy of truly worshiping him. The book of Revelation envisions the future worship of God by people “from every nation and tribe and people and language” (Rev 7:9-10).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:20-22; 9:29; 2 Kgs 19:22-37; Jer 18:5-11; 25:15-29; 46:1–51:64; Dan 2:19-21; 4:34-37; Hag 2:7; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 12:21-23; Rom 13:1-7<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","summary_en":"The Lord of Nations Both the Old Testament and the New Testament affirm that the Lord is the one true God and that God is supreme over all nations and all peoples in all ages, even when rulers in those nations do not believe in or acknowledge him. Kings and emperors might believe that they control all events in their realms, but they are wrong. The Lord God is ultimately in control. The Old Testament prophets declared that the Lord God of Israel decided who would become king or emperor of eac...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":1891,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\nIn biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\nThe biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\nBecause of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Adder<\/p>\n• Ant<\/p>\n• Antelope<\/p>\n• Ape<\/p>\n• Asp<\/p>\n• Ass<\/p>\n• Badger<\/p>\n• Bat<\/p>\n• Bear<\/p>\n• Bee<\/p>\n• Behemoth<\/p>\n• Camel<\/p>\n• Caterpillar<\/p>\n• Cattle<\/p>\n• Chameleon<\/p>\n• Coral<\/p>\n• Cricket<\/p>\n• Crocodile<\/p>\n• Deer<\/p>\n• Dog<\/p>\n• Donkey<\/p>\n• Dragon<\/p>\n• Fish<\/p>\n• Flea<\/p>\n• Fly<\/p>\n• Fox<\/p>\n• Frog<\/p>\n• Gazelle<\/p>\n• Gecko<\/p>\n• Gnat<\/p>\n• Goat<\/p>\n• Grasshopper<\/p>\n• Hare<\/p>\n• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n• Horse<\/p>\n• Hyena<\/p>\n• Jackal<\/p>\n• Leech<\/p>\n• Leopard<\/p>\n• Leviathan<\/p>\n• Lion<\/p>\n• Lizard<\/p>\n• Locust<\/p>\n• Mole<\/p>\n• Moth<\/p>\n• Mouse<\/p>\n• Mule<\/p>\n• Pig<\/p>\n• Porcupine<\/p>\n• Scorpion<\/p>\n• Sheep<\/p>\n• Snail<\/p>\n• Snake<\/p>\n• Spider<\/p>\n• Sponge<\/p>\n• Unicorn<\/p>\n• Wasp<\/p>\n• Whale<\/p>\n• Wild Ox<\/p>\n• Wolf<\/p>\n• Worm<\/p>\n\nAdder<\/p>\nOne of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper (Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\nBoth Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper (Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAnt<\/p>\nMentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\nAt least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant (Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\nAntelope<\/p>\nSeveral antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx (Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\nAnother antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax (Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\nAntelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\nApe<\/p>\nPrimate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\nAsp<\/p>\nPoisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\nAss<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\nBadger<\/p>\nSmall hoofed mammal. What the kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax (Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nThese rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\nBat<\/p>\nFlying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\nThe bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\nMost bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\nA third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\nEight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\nTwo species of mouse-tailed bats (genus Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\nThe bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\nBear<\/p>\nLarge, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\nBears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\nBears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\nSome biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\nIn biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\nBee<\/p>\nOne of two domesticated insects (Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\nThe wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\nOne reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\nThe Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\nThe Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\nThe land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\nBehemoth<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\nCamel<\/p>\nLarge beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel (Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\nCamels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\nThe hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\nTwo varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\nAnother species of camel, the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\nCamels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\nAbraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 BC<\/span>.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nCaterpillar<\/p>\nLarval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\nThe word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nCattle<\/p>\nDomestic animals of the bovine species (Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\nSome scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\nThe biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\nProbably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\nCattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\nCalves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\nCattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\nAn ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nChameleon<\/p>\nLizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings (Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nCoral<\/p>\nCalcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms (Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\nIn ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nCricket<\/p>\nInsect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\nThe kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\nCrocodile<\/p>\nLargest of all existing reptiles (Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\nThe crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\nUntil the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\nThe description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\nDeer<\/p>\nLarge ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\nThe end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\nThree species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer (Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\nThe antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\nThe roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\nThere is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\nThe hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\nDog<\/p>\nProbably the earliest domesticated animal (Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\nThe dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\nDogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\nDogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\nDonkey<\/p>\nBeast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land (Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\nThe donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\nThe people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\nThe onager, or Syrian wild donkey (Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\nThe Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\nThe onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager (Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nDragon<\/p>\nAny one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\nThe other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nBabylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\nFish<\/p>\nAquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\nEgyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\nThe method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\nThe Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\nVery early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” (<\/em>ichthus<\/span>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\nFlea<\/p>\nTiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\nA flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\nFly<\/p>\nInsects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\nAs in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly (Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\nAnother fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\nThe fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\nA proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly (Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\nPhilistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nFox<\/p>\nSmall, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land (Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\nThe Egyptian fox (Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox (Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\nSome OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\nFrog<\/p>\nAmphibian (genus Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\nFrogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\nFrogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\nIn Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt (Rana punctata,<\/em> or Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nGazelle<\/p>\nSmall, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\nGazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\nIn biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\nThe gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\nGecko<\/p>\nReptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\nAnother name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\nGnat<\/p>\nAny very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\nThe sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\nGnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\nGoat<\/p>\nCloven-hooved mammals (genus Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\nThe goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat (Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety (Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\nThe Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\nAlmost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\nAdult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\nGoatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\nGoats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\nBecause of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\nGoats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\nThe goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\nThe ibex, a type of wild goat (Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\nUsually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\nThe goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\nGrasshopper<\/p>\nLarge insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\nThe terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\nGrasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\nHare<\/p>\nAnimal of the genus and species Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\nNear Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\nThe hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\nHippopotamus<\/p>\nLarge beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\nThe description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\nThe hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\nHorse<\/p>\nPrzewalski’s horse (Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse (Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\nHorses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\nThe Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\nIn early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\nHyena<\/p>\nStocky carnivore (Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\nKnown as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\nJackal<\/p>\nCarnivore (Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\nThe jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\nOT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\nLeech<\/p>\nSegmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\nThe reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\nLeopard<\/p>\nCalled Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\nThe leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\nThe leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\nLeviathan<\/p>\nSea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\nLion<\/p>\nLarge, tawny-colored carnivore (Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion (Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\nThe males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\nLions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\nThe lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\nA lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\nLions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\nLions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\nLizard<\/p>\nReptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\nLizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\nThe Dabb lizard (genus Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\nLizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\nLocust<\/p>\nAn insect of the family Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\nThe OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\nOnly three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust (Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\nThe quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\nIn the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\nA locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\nBedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\nThe ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\nMole<\/p>\nRodent (Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThe mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\nIn the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\nMoth<\/p>\nInsect of the genus Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\nThe moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\nThere are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\nMouse<\/p>\nRodent of the family Muridae, especially genus Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\nThe Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\nMule<\/p>\nHybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse (Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\nBecause crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\nMules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\nPig<\/p>\nMost properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig (Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\nThe pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\nPigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\nWild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\nBoar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\nStrict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\nEating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\nPigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nAlabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\nIt is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\nPorcupine<\/p>\nRodent, Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the nlt<\/span>. See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\nScorpion<\/p>\nArthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\nA scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\nSheep<\/p>\nDomestic animal, Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\nSheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\nSheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\nWool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\nThe Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali (Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial (Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\nThe sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\nOnly the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\nAlthough the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\nThe flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\nTo protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\nWild mountain sheep, varieties of Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\nThe sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\nSnail<\/p>\nInvertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\nPurple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail (Murex trunculus<\/em> and Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\nExodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word (onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\nSnake<\/p>\nVarious species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\nSnakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\nMany snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\nThe venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\nThe “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\nAlthough snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\nSpider<\/p>\nAnimal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\nMost spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\nSponge<\/p>\nSimple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\nSponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\nUnicorn<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\nWasp<\/p>\nInsects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\nWhale<\/p>\nLargest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\nTwo varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\nThe sperm whale (Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\nWhales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark (Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\nWild Ox<\/p>\nLarge, fierce, fleet, intractable animal (Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\nHunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\nWolf<\/p>\nLarge doglike mammal (Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\nWolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\nThe wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\nIn Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\nThe Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\nWorm<\/p>\nActually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil (Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":30504,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66860,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94486,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122112,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149738,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Sovereignty of God","title_en":"The Sovereignty of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Sovereignty of God<\/h3>\nWe human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16).<\/p>\nGod’s sovereign hand is in everything. God is in control of the lives of all people (Ps 135:5-12), the universe, and the course of earth’s history (Isa 40:15-17; Acts 17:24; Col 1:15-20), directing it to his appointed ends (Isa 46:10; Dan 7:27-28; Matt 24:14-31; Rev 1:7-8).<\/p>\nAs demonstrated throughout 2 Kings, God exercises sovereign power and control over the affairs of nations. He installed and deposed the kings of Israel and Judah according to his purposes and according to the degree of their obedience. He permitted successful attacks against his people as punishment for their sins (2 Kgs 8:18-22). God was in control when the Assyrians attacked Samaria and brought down the northern kingdom (17:1-6, 18, 20). Hezekiah’s successes in Judah were due to the Lord’s blessings (18:5-7). God’s sovereign hand can be seen in all of the complex international events that happened, just as the Lord had promised, during the reigns of the final kings of Judah (23:26-27).<\/p>\nGod also displays his power in his answers to the prayers and petitions of his people. When Elisha prayed, God responded to his faithful prophet’s requests. Through Elisha he allowed the woman from Shunem to have a son and later brought that son back to life (4:17, 32-35). The Lord graciously answered the prayers of Jehoahaz and provided a rescuer for beleaguered Israel (13:4-5). He honored Hezekiah’s prayers for Jerusalem (19:1-7) and for his own life (20:1-6).<\/p>\nPaul shows that God determines the course of salvation. Paul constantly explains the unexpected development of salvation history by appealing to what God has said and done. Human decisions alone cannot explain the situation, and God has said that he will show mercy to anyone he chooses (Rom 9:15). While theologians will continue to debate the role of God’s action and the role of human decision in salvation, God’s sovereignty stands out clearly.<\/p>\nBecause God is sovereign, his people rightly seek to live in harmony with his will (Rom 12:1-2), in the strength that he provides (see 1 Cor 1:8-9). We can follow the example of Christ in his prayer, “I want your will to be done, not mine” (Matt 26:39). The contemporary world has set God to the side and ignores the divine influence on the course of human affairs. But God’s decisions really do direct the world as well as the personal histories of those who trust him. When we live for God’s glory (Isa 42:8; Hab 2:14; Jude 1:24-25), whatever happens is also ultimately for our good (Ps 84:11; Eph 3:16-19; Col 1:27; 2 Thes 1:11-12), and we can confidently affirm that “God causes everything to work together for the good of those who love God and are called according to his purpose for them” (Rom 8:28)..<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 8:22; 9:29; Deut 4:39; 32:8, 39; Josh 2:11; 1 Sam 2:6-8; 2 Kgs 13:4-5; 17:1-6, 18-20; 18:5-7; 19:5-7; 20:4-6; Pss 24:1-2; 84:11; 135:5-12; Isa 40:15-17; 45:7; 46:10; Jer 27:5-7; Dan 7:27-28; Hab 2:14; John 19:11; Acts 17:24-26; Rom 8:28; 9:5-24; 1 Cor 1:8-9; Col 1:15-20; 2 Thes 1:11-12; Jude 1:24-25; Rev 1:7-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","summary_en":"The Sovereignty of God We human beings always want to think that we are in charge. We think that by our decisions and actions we can determine what will happen. However, Scripture confronts us with quite a different scenario, pointing again and again to the ultimate sovereignty of God (see, e.g., Deut 4:39; Ps 135:5-7; Isa 46:8-11; Jude 1:24-25). Although human decisions and actions are significant, the will of God is vastly more important (see Jas 4:13-16). God’s sovereign hand is in everyth...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":30492,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":11466,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Exodus","title_en":"Book of Exodus","content_ro":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXODUS, Book of<\/h3>\nSecond book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus.<\/p>\nHistorically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives the basis for this religious, political, and social life.<\/p>\nTheologically, the book of Exodus is so frequently referred to in the OT and NT that theologians speak of an “exodus motif.” In Psalm 68, for example, David received assurance in remembering that his God was the same one who rescued Israel from Egypt. The prophet Jeremiah compared the future regathering of Israel to their exodus from Egypt as an even more miraculous event (Jer 16:14-15). The return of Jesus and his parents from Egypt is associated with the exodus in Matthew 2:13-15. The deliverance of the Jewish people from Egypt was interpreted as a prototype for God’s freeing of all his people, both Israel and the church. Thus, the message of the book of Exodus is foundational to understanding God’s plan of salvation throughout the Bible.<\/p>\nThe English title “Exodus” comes from the Septuagint, a pre-Christian translation of the OT into Greek. The word means “a way out” or “departure” and refers to Israel’s rescue from Egypt. The Hebrew title is Shemoth<\/span> (“these are the names”), from the book’s opening words, referring to the names of the sons of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nAccording to tradition, Exodus and the entire Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) were written by Moses. Exodus was probably written at Mt Sinai or shortly after the events there, according to this view. There is much to support that claim: (1) The book states that Moses wrote God’s words in at least one book (Ex 17:14; 24:2, 7; 34:27-28). According to Deuteronomy 31:9, 24, Moses recorded God’s law in a book that was deposited beside the ark of the covenant as a witness for God. (2) Many OT writers referred to portions of Exodus as the “law of Moses” (1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Chr 34:14; Neh 8:1; 13:1). The NT, including the testimony of Jesus, calls Moses the author (Mk 7:10; 12:26; Jn 1:45; 7:19).<\/p>\nVarious other theories about the origin of Exodus have been proposed. Some scholars credit Moses with writing nearly the entire book. One writer claims that Moses was an unknown desert sheikh who never even met the Israelites. Some critics think they detect in the book several documents from various periods in Israel’s history that were finally put together by an editor centuries after Moses’ death. Others have isolated various literary forms, such as the “Song of Moses” (Ex 15), and traced their development. Another interpretation says that the exodus story was passed on by word of mouth for many generations before being written.<\/p>\nAlthough such theories are held by biblical scholars, they deny what the text of the book repeatedly affirms: that Moses wrote Exodus. The book of Exodus contains evidence of being written by an eyewitness. Only such a person would recall, for example, that there were 12 fountains and 70 palm trees at Elim (Ex 15:27). The author shows a thorough knowledge of Egyptian court life, customs, and language. Some of the materials used to construct the tabernacle, such as acacia wood for its furniture (25:10) and rams’ skins for the outer covering (v 5), are found in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula but not in Palestine. The book thus seems to have had a desert setting.<\/p>\nMoses was not only commissioned by God to write the book of Exodus, but he was also well qualified. He was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and he was mighty in his words and deeds” (Acts 7:22, rsv<\/span>). In addition, the 40 years spent in the wilderness of Midian and Sinai gave him a thorough knowledge of the geography and wildlife of the regions through which the Israelites traveled. The events of the exodus—deliverance from the Egyptians and God’s giving of the law—were so central to the history of Israel that Moses took special care to preserve the record so it could be passed on to following generations.<\/p>\nDate<\/p>\nIf one accepts the traditional view that Moses wrote Exodus, then the book is to be dated in the time of Moses. Two dates are generally suggested for the exodus from Egypt.<\/p>\n\n<h5>The “Late Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites was Seti I (Sethos, c. 1304–1290 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Ramses II (c. 1290–1224 BC<\/span>). The exodus would thus have occurred in 1290, and the conquest of Canaan would have begun in 1250. There are two principal arguments for this view: (1) According to Exodus 1:11, the Israelites were forced to build the store city of Rameses; therefore, Ramses II must have been ruling at the time. But the city of Rameses could have existed earlier under a different name and then been renamed after Ramses II when he rebuilt it. Or there could have been an earlier monarch named Ramses who commissioned its construction. (2) There is archaeological evidence of movements of people and widespread destruction in Canaan around 1250 BC<\/span>. If this destruction was caused by the Hebrew conquest under Joshua, it would place the exodus around 1290. But it could just as easily have been the result of social turbulence and anarchy in the period of the Israelite judges, or of the military activities of neighboring peoples.<\/p>\n<h5>The “Early Date” View<\/h5>\nThis view says that the pharaoh of the oppression was Thutmose III (c. 1504–1450 BC<\/span>) and the pharaoh of the exodus was Amenhotep II (c. 1450–1424 BC<\/span>). Thus, the exodus would have occurred about 1440, and the conquest would have begun around 1400. Three chief arguments support that view: (1) If the fourth year of King Solomon was 966 BC<\/span>, then the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 would place the exodus at 1446. (2) If the time of Jephthah was 1100 BC<\/span>, then the 300 years of Judges 11:26 would date the conquest at 1400. (3) The late date would not leave enough time for the period of the judges, which most chronologies indicate lasted between 300 and 400 years. On the basis of such biblical references to the date of the exodus, the early date appears preferable.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nSome events in Egypt during the period covered by the book of Exodus shed additional light on the biblical record. Exodus 12:40 records that the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That would place the settling of Jacob and his family in Goshen (Gn 47:4, 11) at about 1870 BC<\/span>, during the powerful 12th dynasty of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. Around the turn of the century, two weaker dynasties followed. Semite invaders from Asia began to infiltrate northern (or Lower) Egypt. Those outsiders, known as the Hyksos, were able to displace the native dynasty with their own king around 1730. That was the “new king” who “did not know Joseph” (Ex 1:8). Being foreigners themselves, they were naturally concerned about the Israelites, who were too many and too mighty for them (v 9). Enslavement was the easiest solution to the problem of the Israelites. The Hyksos kings could use the new source of labor to enlarge Rameses, at that time the capital of Lower Egypt.<\/p>\nNot until about 1580 BC<\/span> were the Egyptians, led by Ahmose, able to drive out the Hyksos and reestablish an Egyptian line of kings. Because the Israelites were still multiplying, despite their hard labor, the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty continued their bondage and decreed that all male children must be killed. When Moses was born (c. 1560 BC<\/span>), that edict was still in effect. Thutmose I (1539–1514), the great empire builder and third of that dynasty, was pharaoh.<\/p>\nThutmose I’s only surviving legal heir was a daughter, Hatshepsut. Her husband assumed the name Thutmose II (1514–1504). When he died, another of the pharaoh’s descendants was named the successor—Thutmose III (1504–1450), who was ten years old at the time. Hatshepsut took the kingdom from the young ruler and controlled it for 22 years (1503–1482). Such a strong-willed woman could have the nerve to disobey her father’s command by saving the life of a Hebrew baby and raising him in the palace at Thebes.<\/p>\nHatshepsut, who continued to rule despite Thutmose III’s coronation, possibly intended for Moses to have the throne, or at least a high position in the realm. Thutmose III, once he had full power after Hatshepsut’s death, would have been eager to do away with Moses. Moses’ hurried flight into the wilderness after killing the overseer fits well with such historical possibilities. Thutmose III’s death in 1450 BC<\/span> opened the way for Moses to return and confront Pharaoh Amenhotep II with God’s command, “Let my people go.”<\/p>\n\nPurpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\nThe purpose of the book of Exodus is to show how God’s promise to Abraham (Gn 15:12-16) was fulfilled when the Lord rescued the Israelite descendants of Abraham from Egyptian bondage. It also explains the origin of the Passover festival, the beginning of the nation by God’s establishment of a covenant with Israel, and the giving of the law on Mt Sinai.<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus tells the moving story of a mighty God, creator of the universe, beyond all limitations of time and space, who intervenes in history on behalf of a helpless group of slaves. God defeats the ruler of the greatest empire on earth and then leads his oppressed people from that land to freedom. Exodus is the story of a single family that providentially grows into a multitude. Through God’s covenant a nation is formed, and through his law the nation is given stability and set apart from all its neighbors. The book of Exodus tells of an unusual man, whose 80 years of preparation are equally divided between the palace of a king and the pasture of a nomadic priest. Moses is a reluctant leader, but he defies the pharaoh, speaks with God face-to-face, and writes nearly one-fourth of the Hebrew Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe God of Exodus is faithful. He makes promises and keeps them. Genesis 15:13-16 records an amazing prophecy: “Then the Lord<\/span> said to Abram, ‘Know of a surety that your descendants will be sojourners in a land that is not theirs, and will be slaves there, and they will be oppressed for four hundred years; but I will bring judgment on the nation which they serve, and afterward they shall come out with great possessions. . . . And they shall come back here in the fourth generation’ ” (rsv<\/span>). In response to this promise, Joseph, “at the end of his life, made mention of the exodus of the Israelites and gave directions concerning his burial” (Heb 11:22, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nThat promise provides a background for the drama of redemption on which the book of Exodus focuses. Redemption can be defined as “deliverance from the power of an alien dominion, and enjoyment of the resulting freedom.” It speaks of a deliverer and what he does to achieve deliverance. The book of Exodus is full of the vocabulary of redemption. It tells of the God who “remembers” his promise to the Hebrew patriarchs (Ex 2:24; 6:5). God “comes down to deliver” the Israelites (3:8), or “save” them (14:30; 15:2), in order to “bring them” out of the land of Egypt (3:10-12). Redemption involves these aspects:<\/p>\n1. The Lord is the author of redemption. In Exodus 6:1-8, as God answered Moses’ prayer to deliver his people, he used the pronoun “I” 18 times to emphasize that he was the one initiating the action. The Hebrew descendants of Abraham had known God primarily by the Hebrew name “El,” a common title in the ancient Near East for the supreme deity. But in Exodus, Israel learned that God is “Jehovah” or “Yahweh.” That is his personal name, a reminder that he is the God of the covenant who personally cares for his people’s welfare. In Exodus 3:14, God told Moses, “I am who I am” or “I will be who I will be.” Some scholars think that statement shows that the name Yahweh comes from the Hebrew verb “to be.” In any case, the concept of “name” in the Hebrew culture is synonymous with “character.” To know the name of God is to know something of his character. Israel knew God as the one who is eternally self-existent yet present with them wherever they would go, acting on their behalf (Ex 3:12; 33:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. The reason for redemption was God’s promise to the forefathers of the Israelites. When God heard the groaning of the people of Israel, he remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob (Ex 2:24; cf. 6:5). In response to their need, he selected an agent of redemption, the unwilling Moses. Moses exhausted every possible excuse, but God would not take no for an answer. Moses is a vivid example of how God prepares, empowers, and sustains his chosen servants, using them to accomplish his purpose.<\/li>\n<li>3. The motive of redemption was God’s grace and love (Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6-7). The purpose of redemption was that Israel and the Egyptians might know God (6:7; 7:5; 8:10; 14:18). The Lord worked so that all who were involved—Moses, the Israelites, Pharaoh, and the Egyptians—would be sure that he alone is God. The Hebrew understanding of knowledge is not primarily intellectual but experience-oriented. The desired response to God’s action is not mere mental assent but also faith and obedience.<\/li>\n<li>4. Redemption is achieved in Exodus by miracles (4:21)—all natural processes controlled supernaturally by God. They are variously described as signs and wonders (7:3), great acts of judgment (6:6; 7:4), and “the finger of God” (8:19). Such miracles were not frivolous fireworks but purposeful works of God. Some of the miracles prove that Moses was sent by God. The miraculous plagues proved that God is supreme, for each of them was a direct challenge to one of the gods of Egypt: Osiris the river god, Yeqt the frog god, Ra (Re) the sun god, Athor the cattle god. The miracles in the wilderness proved that God fulfills all the needs of his people.<\/li>\n<li>5. The pharaoh was the villain—a picture of rebellious humanity confronted by God’s command (Ex 4:21-23). Ten times the pharaoh hardened his heart. Yet, in a sense, it was God who hardened the pharaoh’s heart, effecting the king’s decision to defy him.<\/li>\n<li>6. The Passover marked the purchase of redemption (Ex 12:23-27; 15:16). It was a clear example of salvation by substitution. When the death angel saw the blood on the doorposts and lintels, he passed by.<\/li>\n<li>7. The recipients of God’s redemption in Exodus were the Israelites. God took them as his own special people (6:7), and they were no longer free to do as they pleased. Even before the exodus he had claimed them, telling Pharaoh, “Israel is my first-born son, and I say to you, ‘Let my son go that he may serve me’ ” (4:22-23, rsv<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>8. The demand of redemption was obedience. On the basis of his deliverance of the Israelites from bondage, God set forth the Ten Commandments (20:1-17) and the rest of the law for them to obey. The people, though quick to pledge their obedience (19:8; 24:3), were even quicker to disobey (32:8). Because the Lord is holy and wants his people to be holy and wholehearted in devotion (34:14), he must punish iniquity. But being compassionate, he also forgives. Throughout the centuries of Israel’s history, God pleaded with his people through the prophets to remember the exodus and repent (see Mi 6:3-4). The faithful responded in gratitude with Moses’ “song of redemption” (Ex 15; cf. Rv 15:3-4).<\/li>\nContent<\/p>\nThe book of Exodus can be divided into four sections, each describing one aspect of God’s dealings with the Israelites during the 15th century BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Unveiling (Ex 1–6)<\/h5>\nThe book of Exodus begins with the 70 descendants of Jacob who joined Joseph in Egypt for the duration of a famine that was afflicting their land (cf. Gn 46–50). After more than a century of prosperity for the Israelites in the land of Goshen, a new dynasty is established in Egypt whose leaders are not friendly toward Israel. In order to stem the rapid growth of the Hebrew people, the Egyptians force them to do hard labor, building storage cities for the pharaoh.<\/p>\nA further command requires all Israelite male children to be killed at birth. The superintendents of the midwives do not comply, however, and God rewards them—not to show his approval of their lie but because they fear and obey God rather than the pharaoh. A new command calls for all male Israelite babies to be drowned in the Nile River. One special child, who escapes when Pharaoh’s daughter has his basket fished out of the Nile, is Moses. Ironically, Moses’ mother is paid by the princess to raise her own child, who grows up in the palace as the princess’s adopted son.<\/p>\nAs an adult, Moses chooses to identify with his Hebrew kin, a tribute to the early instruction given him by his godly parents (see Heb 11:24-26). He sets out to liberate Israel from the Egyptians, one man at a time. But he has to flee to Midian, at the eastern edge of the Sinai Peninsula or in Arabia beyond the northern top of the Gulf of Aqaba. Moses marries into the household of Jethro, also named Reuel. Reuel (“friend of God”) is probably the man’s personal name, and Jethro (“excellence”) his title. Because he is called a “priest of Midian” (Ex 2:16), some scholars have maintained a “Kenite hypothesis,” suggesting that Moses adopted the religion of his father-in-law and taught it to the Israelites. But the Bible states that Moses received his religion by a direct revelation from God. Jethro seems to believe only after he sees that God has rescued Israel from the Egyptians (18:10-11).<\/p>\nWhile their future deliverer is in Midian, the Israelites continue to be oppressed and cry out to God in their misery (2:23-25). God responds by descending to his people. He came down to rescue Israel (3:8). He appears to Moses in a burning bush and identifies himself as the same God who promised the patriarchs a land “flowing with milk and honey” (3:17). Moses will lead the Israelites there, assisted by his brother, Aaron.<\/p>\nAssured that God’s presence and miraculous signs will accompany him, Moses takes his wife Zipporah and his two sons and departs for Egypt. On the way, the Lord meets him and seeks to put him to death (4:24). That is probably the Hebrew way of saying that God strikes him with a mortal illness. Moses, who is going to deliver God’s people, has neglected the sign of the covenant in failing to circumcise one of his sons (Gn 17:14). Moses recovers after the rite is performed and continues on to Egypt, meeting Aaron at Mt Sinai. Their reception by the Israelites is more cordial than that of Pharaoh, who refuses to honor the God who sent Moses. Instead of releasing the Israelites to offer sacrifices to their God in the wilderness, he increases their burdens. The people complain to Moses, and Moses complains to God. God appears again to Moses (Ex 6), reassuring him that Israel will be delivered by divine power. God’s plan is not a failure—he is just beginning to put it into action.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Deliverance (Ex 7–19)<\/h5>\nChapters 7–12 record ten plagues with which God afflicts the Egyptians. Even before the first of them, the pharaoh has hardened his heart to defy God (7:13). There are three cycles of three plagues each:<\/p>\n\n The first three plagues affect both the Egyptians and the Israelites; the Israelites are protected from the final six. The Egyptian magicians are able to duplicate the first two plagues, but when the third strikes, they admit, “This is the finger of God” (8:19). After the plague of flies covers the land, the pharaoh offers Moses the first of four compromises, but Moses refuses all of them (8:25-29; 10:8-11, 24-29). The first plagues are merely unpleasant, but the final ones are destructive and inflict much suffering. Since all of the plagues are common to that area, they themselves are not miraculous. The miracle is how the phenomena are multiplied and limited to the land of Egypt.<\/p>\nThe nine plagues serve to harden the pharaoh’s heart even more, so God prepares one final stroke. The death of every firstborn male, among both animals and humans, will be the fatal blow. God warns the Israelites to get ready to leave. To avert the death angel, they must put blood from an unblemished yearling male sheep or goat on their doorways. While they are eating the Passover meal, the death angel begins moving through the land of Egypt. In anguish the pharaoh drives the Israelites from the land; the slaves are free at last. Just as he has promised, the Lord goes before the children of Israel in a pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night.<\/p>\nBut once again the pharaoh’s heart is hardened and he gives pursuit. God parts the waters of the sea with a great wind. The literal meaning of the name given that body of water is “sea of reeds.” It could refer to any shoreline where the water is sufficiently shallow for such plants to grow (see 1 Kgs 9:26, where the same term refers to the Gulf of Aqaba near Eloth). Whatever the location, there God hands the Egyptians their final defeat. The rescue is complete.<\/p>\nMoses and the Israelites respond with renewed faith in the Lord and with a song of victory and praise (Ex 14:31–15:21). Soon, however, thanksgiving turns into grumbling because of bitter water (15:22-26), lack of meat and bread (16:1-15), and lack of water (17:1-7). In each situation God provides for their need. He also gives them victory over the Amalekites (vv 8-16). As the Israelites approach Mt Sinai, Moses’ family rejoins him, accompanied by Jethro. Jethro now confesses his faith in the God of the Israelites and shares in a fellowship meal with the leaders. He also assists Moses in reorganizing the judicial system, then returns to Midian (ch 18).<\/p>\nThe Israelites arrive at Mt Sinai, also called Horeb (3:1), and prepare to meet the Lord who has rescued them in fulfillment of his promise to Moses (v 12). The Lord establishes his covenant with Israel, taking them as his own possession, “a kingdom of priests, my holy nation.” They quickly respond, “We will certainly do everything the Lord<\/span> asks of us” (19:5-8, nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Instruction (Ex 20–24)<\/h5>\nThe God who redeems a people, who literally “buys them back from slavery,” has a right to make certain demands of them. The commandments God gives to Israel at Sinai are not burdensome requirements but protective guidelines for living as God’s people (20:2-3).<\/p>\nThe Law (or Torah, meaning “instruction”) revealed at Sinai consists of three parts:<\/p>\n1. The Ten Commandments (ch 20), addressing a person’s relationship to God and other people. Based on God’s nature (and therefore permanent), the Ten Commandments are unique in the history of the nations.<\/p>\n<li>2. The judgments (chs 21–23), social regulations for governing the people as a theocracy, similar in many ways to the law codes of Israel’s neighbors.<\/li>\n<li>3. Ordinances (chs 24–31) regulating religious ceremonies.<\/li>\nAll of the laws are given to Moses during the weeks he spends with God on the mountain.<\/p>\nThe Ten Commandments form the basis of all other laws in Israel (20:1-17). The first five deal with honoring the Lord, the second five with respecting one’s neighbor. The last commandment deals with one’s thoughts and intentions rather than with specific actions. It thus forms a safeguard against all sins not included in the first nine.<\/p>\nThe judgments recorded in chapters 21–23 deal with master-slave relationships (21:1-11), offenses punishable by death (vv 12-17), compensation for injury to persons or damage to property (21:18–22:15), various interpersonal relationships (22:16–23:9), and Sabbaths, feasts, and the offering of firstfruits (23:10-19). Many of the judgments would not take effect until Israel settled in the Promised Land. Accordingly, that section of the Law closes with a solemn warning against being rebellious and adopting pagan ways. It also contains a bright promise that God will drive out Israel’s enemies, protect his people from sickness, and grant them prosperity, if they obey the Lord’s commands (23:22).<\/p>\nExodus 24 records a reaffirmation of the covenant between God and Israel, as Moses seals it with the blood of a sacrifice. In response, God appears to the leaders of the people, giving them a glimpse of his splendor. Then Moses ascends the mountain one more time to receive the stone tablets containing the commandments, as well as further instructions regarding the meeting tent (tabernacle), the priesthood, and worship.<\/p>\n<h5>God’s Presence with his People (Ex 25–40)<\/h5>\nAfter the Lord redeemed the Israelites, he told Moses, “I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. And you will know that I am the Lord<\/span> your God who has rescued you from your slavery in Egypt” (6:7, nlt<\/span>). Moses had seen that wonderful promise fulfilled, yet one further step remained: “I want the people of Israel to build me a sacred residence where I can live among them” (25:8). God’s dwelling among his people is possible because God had descended to deliver the people and because they had pledged to meet his demands. God calls for a contribution from all whose hearts were willing to give, and he shows Moses a detailed pattern of the tabernacle and its furniture. Aaron and his sons are set apart to serve in the tent. Stipulations for the various offerings, including the Day of Atonement, are given. God tells Moses that he has chosen Bezalel and Oholiab to build the tabernacle and to craft its furnishings, having filled them with his Spirit.<\/p>\nIn the meantime the Israelites, who so recently promised total obedience, grow impatient as Moses lingers for 40 days on the mountain. They demand that Aaron make an idol for them. Under pressure, Aaron complies and forms a molten calf, a representation of a pagan deity (32:4).<\/p>\nThe Lord informs Moses of the people’s idolatry, revelry, and immorality and says that he is angry enough to destroy all of them and start again with Moses’ offspring. Moses pleads for Israel until the Lord relents, then descends from the mountain to punish the people. Moses pleads again for forgiveness for Israel, and God in mercy pardons their terrible sin (34:8-10).<\/p>\nOnce more God offers to make a covenant with the people (34:10). Moses spends another 40 days with the Lord, writing the commandments on tablets to replace those smashed when he saw the golden calf. When he returns to the people, his face shines from being in God’s presence, and he must keep it veiled.<\/p>\nNow that Israel has been restored to God’s favor, the construction of the tabernacle can begin. The contributions are so generous that Moses must restrain the people from bringing any more. Finally, all is ready. Moses examines the tabernacle, and it is erected on the first day of the first month, nearly a year after the first Passover. The priests are consecrated, the lamps are lit, and the first burnt sacrifice is offered. A cloud descends, filling the tabernacle with the glory of the Lord. God dwells among his people, the goal of redemption has been attained, and the drama of the book of Exodus has come to an end.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Israel, History of; Moses; Plagues upon Egypt; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","summary_en":"EXODUS, Book of Second book of the Bible, containing the story of God’s liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt. Few books of the OT are as important historically and theologically as the book of Exodus. Historically, the exodus event was the birth of Israel as a nation. At Mt Sinai a group of tribes who were descendants of Abraham became a nation ruled by God. The book of Exodus explains how the Israelites were able to resettle the land God had promised to Abraham and gives ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30516,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plagues upon Egypt","title_en":"Plagues upon Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLAGUES UPON EGYPT<\/h3>\nUnprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC<\/span>). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24).<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• The Plagues<\/p>\n• Pharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\n• The Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nThe Plagues<\/p>\nThe plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first sight one might imagine that the plagues took place in succession within a few weeks, but casual notes of time (see 7:25; 9:31-32), as well as the nature of some of the plagues, would suggest that several months may well have been involved. The first plague was the turning of water into blood (7:20), so that the fish died and the water stank. Next came a plague of frogs (8:6); even after their death, the land was strewn with piles of their bodies (v 14). Next came a plague of lice (v 17), or possibly gnats, sandflies, or mosquitoes. The exact sense of the word is not clear, but it obviously means some small irritating creature. After that came “swarms of flies” (v 24). Again, the meaning is not quite clear. Later Jewish tradition made it swarms of wild beasts, but flies is a much more likely sense. Then some sort of cattle plague struck (9:3), affecting the domestic animals. After that came boils on humans (v 9), boils that erupted into painful blisters and vesicles, apparently irritating rather than fatal. Hail followed (v 18), so severe that nothing like it had been seen before—hail associated with thunder and lightning (v 24). This was so heavy that it could be fatal (v 19), and naturally did great harm to the crops of Egypt (v 31). After that came locusts in vast numbers (10:13)—again on an unparalleled scale. Then came three days of complete darkness (v 22) that brought Egyptian life to a standstill. Finally, all the firstborn of the Egyptians died (12:29)—from Pharaoh’s household down to the lowliest homes in the land.<\/p>\nAll the plagues are seen in the Bible as successive judgments of God. Normally, each is preceded by a warning from Moses, which is disregarded by Pharaoh, and then each is lifted as a result of temporary repentance on the part of Pharaoh. But it is also clear that the plagues gradually increase in severity and intensity, until the climax comes in the death of the firstborn—with that, even Pharaoh is broken. The first plagues represent discomfort rather than danger for the Egyptians; then their animals and crops are struck down; finally death takes the firstborn, the flower of the nation.<\/p>\nThere are certain common features that run through the account of the plagues. At first, Pharaoh’s magicians try to belittle the plagues, and the signs that precede them, by producing similar effects themselves (7:11-12; 8:7). This is an interesting warning that miracles may be produced from various sources and that this sort of sign is therefore not important in itself. But the time comes when the magicians are beaten and can no longer compete (8:18); even they admit that this is God’s hand (v 19). When the plague of boils comes, the magicians cannot even present themselves before Pharaoh, so bad is their condition. After that, the magicians disappear from the story.<\/p>\nAnother motif that becomes increasingly clear as the account of the plagues continues, is the increasing emphasis on the way in which God’s people, living in Goshen, were delivered from the plagues that affected the Egyptians. It could be assumed anyway that, as Goshen was not on the Nile, the water that turned to blood and the plague of frogs and mosquitoes might affect them less. But in the case of the later swarms of flies (8:22), the cattle plague (9:4), the hail (v 26), and the darkness (10:23), we are specifically told that Israel was spared; in the case of the death of the firstborn, the Lord “passed over” Israelite homes.<\/p>\nAt first, it seems as if the hearts of all the Egyptians are just as hard as that of the pharaoh (7:13). Yet as the story goes on, his own people keep urging him to yield to God. The magicians admit God’s role in the plague of lice (8:19). Pharaoh’s servants who heeded God’s warning through Moses brought their servants and cattle indoors before the great hailstorms, and thus escaped loss and death (9:20). Only the unbelieving suffered. Finally, Pharaoh’s own servants exhorted him to let Israel go, bluntly telling him that the land was being ruined by his stubbornness (10:7).<\/p>\nPharaoh and the Plagues<\/p>\nPharaoh’s reaction to God’s word is remarkable. Scripture describes the hardness of Pharoah’s heart in three ways. Exodus 7:3 speaks of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart; 7:14 has the neutral statement that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened; and 8:15 has Pharaoh hardening his own heart. Obviously, these all refer to the same process, which must be taken into account in any explanation. Furthermore, Paul must be allowed to have the last word on the matter (Rom 9:18).<\/p>\nBut, within this theological framework, there is quite a movement, not merely a succession of shallow repentances designed to secure the removal of the plague, and then a renewed stubbornness, calling down a fresh judgment. There is also a typically Asian bargaining session between Pharaoh and Moses. After Pharaoh’s broken promises to let the people go (8:8), he tries to bargain: the people should sacrifice to God in Egypt, without going at all (v 25); only the men should go (10:11); they should all go, but leave their flocks and herds as hostage (v 24). But there can be no bargaining of this sort in response to the call of God, as Pharaoh was to learn. After the death of the firstborn, he was glad to see the Israelites leave (12:31-33).<\/p>\nIn this sense, the whole story of the plagues is a struggle. It has sometimes been seen as the struggle of the prototype prophet, Moses (Dt 18:15), against the prototype king, Pharaoh; while it may be that, it is far more. It is the struggle of Moses, the servant of God, against the magicians. It is the struggle of Moses against mighty Pharaoh, or rather, the confrontation of Pharaoh by God, in the form of the word brought by his servant. At the deepest level, it is a victory won by God over the false gods of Egypt. This gives to many of the stories their peculiar relish. For the Nile is the god Hapi; Hept the frog is a god of fertility and childbirth; Ra the sun (outraged by the darkness) is a god; Hat-hot had the form of a heifer, and Apis that of a bull; the flying hornet symbolized Egypt; and Pharaoh himself was a god. Yet all were helpless before the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe Nature of the Plagues<\/p>\nIt is not known how God brought about the plagues, and some may think it vain even to ask, since God is free to use whatever means he pleases. Yet the statement that God turned back the waters of the “Reed Sea” by a strong east wind (Ex 14:21) indicates that God could use natural means to bring about his will. The Hebrew concept of “miracle” was not the same as the modern one, which usually regards miracles as “supernatural” and sees all else as “natural” and thus as nonmiraculous. The Hebrews, however, regarded everything in nature as the work of God; it was only that in certain instances he had acted more “wonderfully” (perhaps one would say more “obviously”) than others. Therefore, there is nothing in any way rationalistic in saying that on this occasion God may have sent a series of “natural” disasters (the sort of disasters to which Egypt was geographically prone) but so heightened them—and sent them in such rapid succession—that they constituted miracles.<\/p>\nMost of the explanations of this sort assume a year of unusual climatic conditions, and in particular, a variation in the annual rise of the Nile. For instance, either an exceptionally low rise of the Nile (leading to red and muddy water) or an exceptionally high rise of the Nile (bringing down red earth from the Ethiopian highlands) have been suggested as explanations of the first plague. If one feels that the description “turned into blood” would be satisfied by thick blood-colored water, then either would be satisfactory. Another attractive suggestion is the multiplication of red plankton in the water. This phenomenon is fairly common across the world, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. This would make the likeness to blood much closer. In either of these cases, death of fish in foul water, and migration of frogs from the river would be understandable. If the Nile was flooding more widely than usual, the plague of frogs would be even more understandable. Some have seen the sudden death of the frogs as due to some type of internal anthrax; and, with piles of stinking frogs’ bodies in the fields, the way was laid wide open both for the carriers of the plagues (flies, etc.) and the plagues that followed.<\/p>\nThe next plague, for instance, was one of mosquitoes, sandflies, gnats, or possibly lice. At least the first and the last are potent carriers of disease, and all would cause irritant sores by their bites. The flooding of the stagnant waters of the Nile would give perfect breeding conditions for mosquitoes in particular.<\/p>\nIf we are right in assuming that the swarms that followed were swarms of flies, then everything would fit into a divine pattern. Piles of dead frogs, piles of rubbish strewn over the land by the flood (including, no doubt, raw sewage), foul and muddied Nile waters—this would be a prime breeding place for flies. Further, Jewish interpreters suggest that the flies in question were biting or stinging flies (like our gadflies or horseflies). Perhaps these were the agents of the disease of the cattle. Modern interpreters have suggested a particular type of fly, still known in the area, which multiplies very rapidly amid rotting vegetation. The flies and the dust (9:9) between them could have produced that dreaded tropical scourge “prickly heat,” easily becoming infected.<\/p>\nAgain, in the providence of God, if the Israelites were not in the Delta area, nor actually living along the Nile itself, but concentrated in the Wadi Tumilat to the east, they would be spared these plagues—a fact that did not escape Pharaoh’s notice (9:7). The miracle thus lay in God’s overruling providence, using his world and its geographic and climatic conditions to do his work of judgment on the stubborn-hearted.<\/p>\nHail, accompanied by violent thunderstorms (9:24), would be easily explicable (although rare in Egypt), especially in the “funnel” conditions of the Nile Valley, surrounded by hot, dry desert on either side. As to the severity of the hail (more common in Palestine), there are biblical parallels (Jos 10:11). With this plague there is a valuable note of time, given incidentally (Ex 9:31-32) in connection with the crops destroyed by the hail.<\/p>\nIn the case of the plague of locusts, God’s use of the elements of nature is made plain in the text, where an “east wind” brings them and a “sea wind” takes them away (10:13, 19). The “plague” here is both the enormous number of locusts (see Jl 1:1-12 for another illustration of this scourge) and the timing of their arrival. There are many other places in the OT where the precision of God’s timing is shown and where indeed the miraculous element lies in the timing of the event.<\/p>\nThe locusts may have darkened the land with their numbers (Ex 10:15), but that was nothing compared with the three days of darkness that followed. Most commentators are agreed that this is the dreaded khamsin,<\/em> the hot desert wind bringing dust storms or sandstorms that fill the sky and may last for days without respite. If the red earth from the Ethiopian highlands had been brought down by the floodwaters of the Nile and deposited widely over the land, some commentators have suggested that it was whipped into the air by this wind, thus giving an even darker pall over the land.<\/p>\nIn the case of the last plague, the death of the firstborn, we have no indication of what, if any, particular disease was used by God. Scripture gives us no clue. What can be said is that the Egyptians suffered but the Israelites did not. After this plague, they were free. Henceforth, it was their glad knowledge that none of “the plagues of Egypt” would strike them as God’s people (15:26). It was their unshakable belief that these plagues were God’s judgment, a punishment on stubborn Pharaoh, but the means of their salvation. Therefore, the plagues are not only a warning to us but also an encouragement. See<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, Book of; Moses; Plague.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","summary_en":"PLAGUES UPON EGYPT Unprecedented series of disasters striking Egypt, probably culminating in spring or early summer (c. 1400 BC). They struck particularly the Nile Delta, although apparently not affecting the area called Goshen. These disasters were of such magnitude that the Egyptians from their earliest history could recall nothing like them (Ex 9:24). Preview • The Plagues • Pharaoh and the Plagues • The Nature of the Plagues The Plagues The plagues are described in Exodus 7–11. At first s...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":43696,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:25","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:25","content_ro":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","summary_en":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71322,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:25","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:25","content_ro":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","summary_en":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98948,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:25","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:25","content_ro":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","summary_en":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126574,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:25","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:25","content_ro":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"8:25<\/strong> Pharaoh<\/em> attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","summary_en":"8:25 Pharaoh attempted to bargain with God. He wanted to obey partially while still retaining control. James says of such people, “Their loyalty is divided between God and the world” (Jas 1:8), and such a person cannot receive anything from the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":43697,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:26","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:26","content_ro":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","summary_en":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71323,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:26","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:26","content_ro":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","summary_en":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98949,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:26","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:26","content_ro":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","summary_en":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126575,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:26","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:26","content_ro":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","content_en":"8:26-27<\/strong> Moses<\/em> pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","summary_en":"8:26-27 Moses pointed out the impossibility of what Pharaoh was asking on the grounds of the Egyptians’ own prejudice: They considered all Semites to be uncultured and uncouth (see Gen 43:32). • The Hebrews were leaving Egypt in order to worship God (see, e.g., Exod 5:1; 7:16; 8:1, 20). God’s purpose for the Exodus was to lead his people into a proper relationship with him.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":43698,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:29","content_ro":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","content_en":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","summary_en":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":71324,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:29","content_ro":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","content_en":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","summary_en":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":98950,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:29","content_ro":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","content_en":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","summary_en":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":126576,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Exodul 8:29","title_en":"Study Note: Exodul 8:29","content_ro":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","content_en":"8:29-30<\/strong> I will pray:<\/em> Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","summary_en":"8:29-30 I will pray: Moses was learning the role of intercessor that would be so much a part of his life in future years (see, e.g., 32:11-13, 30-32; Num 14:13-19). It must have been increasingly tempting to let the Egyptians continue to experience the results of their king’s stubbornness, but Moses was willing to plead with God not to leave them in a permanent state of grief and distress.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":40951,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Pharaoh","title_en":"Pharaoh","content_ro":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","summary_en":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68577,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Pharaoh","title_en":"Pharaoh","content_ro":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","summary_en":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96203,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Pharaoh","title_en":"Pharaoh","content_ro":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","summary_en":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123829,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Pharaoh","title_en":"Pharaoh","content_ro":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pharaoh<\/h3>\n“Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt.<\/p> \nTwo pharaohs appear in the book of Exodus, neither of whom had the same regard for the Hebrew people (see Exod 1:8-10). The first was king when Moses was born. Out of fear, he ordered the murder of all Hebrew baby boys. Moses not only escaped death, but was raised by Pharaoh’s daughter in the palace! This pharaoh died after Moses had fled from Egypt (Exod 2:23).<\/p>\nA new pharaoh came to power, whom Moses and Aaron later confronted. This pharaoh was determined to prevent the Israelites from leaving Egypt; he remained stubborn even when confronted with God’s power. The Bible describes his hard-hearted unwillingness to change (see Exod 8:32; 9:12, 34-35; cp. Rom 1:18-32).<\/p>\nAs king, the pharaoh personified the rule of the gods over Egypt, which gave him absolute authority. The plagues were God’s attacks on the false gods of Egypt (see Exod 12:12). The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was an attack on Pharaoh’s household. This climactic plague convinced Pharaoh to let Israel go, but after the Israelites left, Pharaoh again changed his mind. He chased them until he had cornered them at the Red Sea. God’s rescue of the defenseless Israelites and the destruction of the powerful Egyptians at the Red Sea is among the most dramatic rescues recorded in the Old Testament. The Lord revealed himself at the Red Sea as a warrior who fought for his people (15:3).<\/p>\nNeither of the pharaohs in Exodus is mentioned by name, probably in keeping with Egyptian practice. However, if the Exodus took place in the 1400s BC<\/span>, the Pharaoh of the Exodus might have been Thutmose III (around 1504–1450 BC<\/span>). If the Exodus occurred in the 1200s BC<\/span> (based on an alternative chronology), this pharaoh might have been Rameses II (around 1279–1213 BC<\/span>).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 1:8-22; 2:14-15, 23; 5:1–15:21<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","summary_en":"Pharaoh “Pharaoh” is an Egyptian word meaning “great house.” It refers to the royal palace and is also used as a title for the king of Egypt. During the time of Joseph, the Israelites were looked upon favorably by the pharaoh. Joseph had interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams, leading to his promotion as second-in-command in Egypt (Gen 41:1-44). Pharaoh gave Joseph’s family the best land in Egypt (Gen 45:16-20), and the Israelites multiplied and flourished in Egypt. Two pharaohs appear in the book of E...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60199,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87825,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115451,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143077,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hardened Hearts","title_en":"Hardened Hearts","content_ro":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hardened Hearts<\/h3>\nExodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God?<\/p>\nOther factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not allowed to repent. Although God was ultimately in control of Pharaoh, Pharaoh himself was accountable for his actions.<\/p>\nThis interplay between human choice and divine sovereignty is found in other places in Scripture. The Israelites hardened their hearts and refused to believe God in the wilderness (Ps 95:8-10). God hardened the hearts of the Canaanites so that they did not seek to make peace with the Hebrews (Josh 11:20). The message God gave to Isaiah hardened the hearts of his hearers (Isa 6:9-10); similarly in the New Testament, many people hardened their hearts in response to the message of the gospel (Matt 13:15; John 12:40; Acts 28:27). People are responsible for their choices, but no one makes choices in a vacuum. Rather, they make them in the context of how God has made his world and providentially directs it.<\/p>\nThe emphasis in Exodus on God’s control of Pharaoh puts the conflict between two belief systems into stark contrast. Pharaoh believed that he was sovereign and divine, able to do whatever he pleased. God demonstrated that this was not the case: Pharaoh was dependent, as much the prisoner of his choices as any other creature on the planet. There is only one absolutely independent “I Am<\/span>,” and that is Yahweh, the Lord<\/span> (see 3:6-14; 6:2-8; 20:2; 34:6-7; Isa 45:3-7; 48:17; Mark 14:62; John 8:23-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:21; Exod 3:19; 4:21; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8; Josh 11:19-20; 2 Chr 36:11-13; Ps 95:8-11; Isa 6:9-10; Ezek 11:18-21; 36:22-27; Matt 12:34-35; 13:10-17; Luke 8:4-15; John 12:37-40; Acts 28:23-28; Rom 2:14-16; 11:7-12; 2 Cor 3:13-18; Eph 4:17-24; Heb 3:6-19; 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","summary_en":"Hardened Hearts Exodus repeatedly states that the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Exod 4:21; 9:12; 10:1, 20; 11:10; 14:4, 8). These statements can be troubling. Was Pharaoh forced to sin against God? Other factors need to be taken into account: (1) The Lord knew ahead of time that Pharaoh would harden his heart (3:19); (2) Pharaoh himself became stubborn (8:15, 32); and (3) Pharaoh remained stubborn despite clear warnings (8:19). Pharaoh was not a well-meaning, misguided individual who was not...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

Exod 8

Citește Biblia

Exod 8

Niciun rezultat

Redare audio

Bine ai venit! 👋